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This study sheds new light on the complex relationship between cognitive and linguistic categories. Challenging the view of cases as categories in cognitive space, Professor Schlesinger proposes a new understanding of the concept of case. Drawing on evidence from psycholinguistic research and English language data, he argues that case categories are in fact composed of more primitive cognitive notions: features and dimensions. These are registered in the lexical entries of individual verbs, thereby allowing certain metaphorical extensions. The features of a noun phrase may also be determined by its syntactic function. This new approach to case permits better descriptions of certain syntactic phenomena than have hitherto been possible, as Schlesinger illustrates through his analysis of the feature compositions of three cases.
This study sheds new light on the complex relationship between cognitive and linguistic categories Challenging the view of cases as categories in cognitive space, Professor Schlesinger proposes a new understanding of the concept of case Drawing on evidence from psycholinguistic research and English language data, he argues that case categories are in fact composed of more primitive cognitive notions: features and dimensions These are registered in the lexical entries of individual verbs, thereby allowing certain metaphorical extensions The features of a noun phrase may also be determined by its syntactic function This new approach to case permits better descriptions of certain syntactic phenomena than have hitherto been possible, as Schlesinger illustrates through his analysis of the feature compositions of three cases STUDIES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE Executive Editor Sidney Greenbaum Advisory Editors: John Algeo, Rodney Huddleston, Magnus Ljung Cognitive space and linguistic case Studies in English Language The aim of this series is to provide a framework for original studies of present-day English All are based securely on empirical research, and represent theoretical and descriptive contributions to our knowledge of national varieties of English, both written and spoken The series will cover a broad range of topics in English grammar, vocabulary, discourse, and pragmatics, and is aimed at an international readership Already published Christian Mair Infinitival complement clauses in English: A study of syntax in discourse Charles F Meyer Apposition in contemporary English Jan Firbas Functional sentence perspective in written and spoken communication Forthcoming John Algeo A study of British—American grammatical differences Cognitive space and linguistic case Semantic and syntactic categories in English IZCHAK M SCHLESINGER Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521434362 © Cambridge University Press 1995 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 1995 This digitally printed first paperback version 2006 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Schlesinger, I M Cognitive space and linguistic case: semantic and syntactic categories in English / Izchak M Schlesinger p cm - (Studies in English language) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 521 43436 X (hardback) English language — Grammatical categories English language— Semantics English language — Syntax English language — Case I Title II Series PE1199.S35 1995 425-dc20 95-12805 CIP ISBN-13 978-0-521-43436-2 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-43436-X hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-02736-6 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-02736-5 paperback For Avigail, who made it possible Contents Preface Introduction page xiii i Cognitive space Semantic and cognitive categories Instrument and Accompaniment - rating studies Ratings of Instrument, Accompaniment, and Manner Notions expressed by with — & qualitative study Agent and Experiencer Cognitive space and grammar 4 12 14 21 23 Agent and subject The semantics of the subject Features of the Agent Feature assignment Case assignment Linking Non-agentive subjects Converse verbs Conclusions 28 28 30 40 45 49 52 54 57 The Comitative fftfA-phrases Features of noun phrases in B^Y/r-phrases The Comitative Linking Studies of linking Conclusions 60 60 61 70 75 86 91 3 Non-comitative instruments The "Instrument" in subject position Constraints on subjects 92 92 94 ix x Contents Degree of CONTROL in the inanimate subject Conjoining of subject noun phrases Passives with instruments Semantic saturation and language acquisition Conclusions Predicates What is a predicate? Phrasal predicates Events and States 98 104 106 109 no in in 115 117 The Attributee The subjects of States Noun phrases that are both A-case and Attributee Implicit Events and States Passive sentences Conclusions 122 122 124 126 128 138 Mental verbs Experiencer and Stimulus - the problem The subjects of mental verbs The objects of mental verbs CONTROL in the Experiencer and the Stimulus Studies of rated CONTROL The Event-State dichotomy of mental verbs The linguistic realization of experiences Conclusions 139 139 140 144 146 149 151 156 162 Objects Direct objects Objects of prepositions Linking of core arguments Deletion of prepositions Features of verb phrases Conclusions 163 163 167 169 173 175 179 Verb classes and Agents Subdivisions of verbs A proposal for a subdivision Substitutability by pro-forms Pseudo-cleft sentences Accounting for the hierarchy The agency gradient 180 180 181 183 190 192 199 Notes to pages 161-78 225 accusative: ich frierejmich frier t, ich hungerejmich hungert Cf the English I think and the archaic me thinks, and also / hunger for 14 In Latin this is also frequent: Habeo timorem\invidiam\odium (I have fear, jealousy, hate; Nikiforidou, 1991) Objects Copular verbs (see Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, 1985, Sections 16.21-22) include be, become, turn (as in turn traitor); the subject complements in sentences with these verbs are not direct objects on this definition Double-object constructions will be dealt with in Section 3.3 A discussion of the direct object, similar to the present one but within a somewhat different theorical framework, is to be found in my chapter "On the semantics of the object" in B Aarts and C Meyer (eds.), The verb in contemporary English: theory and description Cambridge University Press (in press) It is possible, though, to characterize the direct object negatively as not having the feature CAUSE (and probably also not CONTROL) AS shown in Chapter 7, Section 3, when the direct object of a mental verb is the Stimulus (e.g., He admires her) it does not have the feature CAUSE Apparent counter-examples are: He left the acid in the wooden bowl He directed the laser beam at the delicate tissue A change of state is undergone by the wooden bowl and the delicate tissue, which are objects of prepositions and not direct objects However, the inference of a change of state is due to our knowledge of the world; the sentences not say so explicitly As stated in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1, feature assignment is determined only by information that is explicit in the sentence and not by inferred information Only one of the objects in (21) is usually regarded as direct object (see Hudson, 1992; Quirk et al., 1985, Sections 16.46 and 16.55-57), D U t according to our definition at the beginning of this chapter, both the objects in each sentence of (21) are direct objects Double objects are also found in other languages, e.g Hebrew Double accusatives in Old Lithuanian are quoted by Schmalstieg (1988: 237, 250) According to the definition given at the beginning of this chapter, some noun phrase adverbials would be direct objects, and these also not express core arguments (Sidney Greenbaum, personal communication, 1993) For instance: Our grandson visits us every week Bella cooks French-style They parted good friends Similar differences in meaning between objects with and without prepositions are found in several other languages (Moravcsik, 1978: 256-61) The same alternation exists in other languages; see Moravcsik (1978: 256-57) on Hungarian, Wunderlich (1987) and Booij (1992) on German, and Schmalstieg (1988: 245) on Lithuanian While there are many activities where this relationship does not hold, it is instantiated often enough to establish an association in our minds between affectedness and the notion of Feat 226 Notes to pages 182-202 Verb classes and Agents When a verb admits of a number of pro-forms - that is, when so, that, or it are acceptable - the choice between them is determined by various considerations; see Crymes (1968: 57—75) and Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1985; Sections 12.23—27) We are indebted to Gershon Ben-Shachar, Samuel Shye, and Estella Melamed for advice on data analysis, to Alon Halter for help in the early stages of this study, to Rina Steierman for help with the experiments, and to Tamar Galai for literature research A preliminary study has been reported in a Working Paper by I M Schlesinger and L Canetti, entitled "Do verbs form a 'squish'? Yes they do.," The Goldie Rotman Center for Cognitive Science in Education, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1988 In this connection, Crymes' (1968: 57-75) observation is pertinent: for "suffusive" verbs (roughly, those that are not activity verbs) that are non-mental, that (and this) are applicable only in generic predicates Recall that notions pertain to the cognitive space, whereas the features that are based on them are theoretical constructs pertaining to the linguistic level Only notions, and not features, are therefore directly accessible to people's judgments This interpretation was so common that it was decided to omit all responses to this verb in the Ask-To frame (No similar problem occurred for the On-Purpose frame, since there verbs were in the past form: pleased.) 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see also A-case animate 106 human 107, 108 inanimate 95, 96, 98; see also subject, inanimate Prototypical 95, 200 alongside 77 Ancillary instrument (notion) 65f., 78, 92 appear 116 Arabic 90, 91, 112, 113 argument 111, 112, 114, 213; see also predicate-argument distinction optional 63 see also core argument assignment see case, assignment of; features, assignment of ^/-phrase 148, 168 ATTRIBUTEE 122 et passim, 146, 164 Attributee (case) 122 et passim, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162 genuine or "good" 131-36; see also Second Constraint on Passivization linking of i23f., 130 be 115, 123, 158,159 become 115, 118 belong to 116 Bodily sensation verbs 181 buy 54f, 56, 57 by means 0/78-80, 81, 109 />j/-phrase 50 et passim, 64, 80, 81, 107, 108, 109, 130, 131, i33f, 136, 148, 169; see also passive constraints on 108, 109 can 115, 120 case 4, 24f., 70, 72f., 85, n o , 211, 213 assignment of 84, 93, 107, 123, 127, 146, 147, 211; A-case 45 et passim; C-case 70 categories cognitive 3, 4, i n , 210; see also notions fuzzy 6, 8, 14, 26, 27 graded 6, 8, 14, 26, 27, 199, 200; see also membership in category; prototypes ontological 112; see also categories, cognitive overlapping 6f., 8, 14, 26, 27, 69, 85, 89, 91 semantic see semantic level 233 234 Subject index Cause (feature) see CAUSE Cause (notion) 15 et passim, 71 distant 34 immediate 34 secondary 65 CAUSE 31 et passim, 34, 65, 66, 73, 74, 75, 92, 93, 94, io7f., 109, n o , 125, 130, 137, 140, 144, i47f., 211, 212, 213 dimensions of 37f CAUSE +act, CAUSE - act 65, 80, 81, 131 see also activity (dimension) CAUSE —act — affi24, 125, 126, 127, 133 CAUSE +aff, CAUSE — aff 37, 38, 39, 41, 45, 5i, 131, 144 see also affecting (dimension) C-case 7of et passim, 92 et passim, 94, 107, no, 211 see also Comitative Change (feature) see CHANGE Change (notion) 118, 119 see also CHANGE CHANGE 31 et passim, 35, 73, 74, iO7f., 125, 128, 129, 130, 144, 164, 192-99 change, overt vs covert 38 child language 146, 147 see also language acquisition cleft sentences 115 cognate objects see object, cognate cognitive categories see categories, cognitive; notions cognitive primitives 23f., 32, 37, 38, 211, 213 cognitive space 1, 5, 23f., 149, 162, 211, 212 see also categories, cognitive Comitative 7of et passim, 92 et passim, 119, 120, 126, 142 see also C-case complementaries 151—56 Completion (feature) 175-79 Complexity (notion) 98-104, 106 comprise 116 constraints on ^y-phrases 108, 109 on subjects 94-98 see also deliberation constraint; mediation constraint contain 116 contracted features see features, contracted Control (notion) 195-99 CONTROL 31 et passim, 32 et passim, 73, 74f., 96, 97, 98, 99, 106, 107, 109, n o , 125, 126, 130, 131, 137, 141, 146-51, 19299, 201 converse verbs 54 et passim copular verbs 53 core argument 42 et passim, 63, 67, 74, 123, 169-71, 180 see also Core argument principle Core argument principle 48 et passim cost 116 Dative 21 deliberately 36, 143 deliberation constraint 94-95, 212 dew 112, 113 dimensions 37f., 211 of A C C O M P 66-68, 211 of CAUSE 37f., 211 see also activity; affecting; distributivity discourse factors see pragmatic factors distr see distributivity distributivity (dimension) 66-68, 212; see also ACCOMP + distr, ACCOMP - distr 116, 181—190; it, so, that, so 184-90 double-object construction 171-72 Dutch 159—61 effected entity 163 E-sentence 139—47, 149—51 see also E-verb; mental verbs Essential property (notion) 99-104 E-verb 139, 141, 157, 158 see also E-sentence; mental verbs Event 117-21, 141, 142-47, 150, 151 f.,181 borderline cases 119-20 Event-State ambiguity 120, 121, 143 implicit 126-28 Experiencer (notion) 21 et passim, 139, 140, 146, 147, 211; see also E-sentence; E-verb expletive it 123 Feat (feature) 176-78 features 30, 42, 211, 212 agentive 31, 32f., 73, 74, 85, 125, 126, 193 et passim', see also CAUSE; CHANGE; CONTROL assignment of 40 et passim, 68, 94, 95, 97f., 144, 145; see also semantic saturation contracted 43 et passim, 97, 98, 106, 107, 123,124, 125, 126, 136—38 multiple 68-70, 124, 126, 143 of verb phrase 175-78, 211 strength of 32, 38, 41, 43, 46f., 63, 73, 74f., 81, 88, 97, 106, 147, 148, 194-99, 212 weight of 47, 48, 49, 107, 144, 212 see also ACCOMP; ATTRIBUTEE; CAUSE; CHANGE; CONTROL; INSTR; MANN) First Constraint on Passivization 131, 132, 133,137 flee si follow 55, 56, 57 for 168 Subject index force .to 142, 143 French 112, 113, 174 fuzziness see categories, fuzzy; notions, fuzzy German 112, 113, 159-61, 174 get 118 Goal 167 see also Locative gradedness see categories, graded; notions, graded Greek, Modern 152 Greenlandic 112 hail 112, 113 have 115, 116, 123, 157-59 Hebrew i n , 112, 113, 174, 190-92 Hungarian 112, 113, 174 imperative 141 inadvertently 36 Ingredient (notion) 64, 65f., 73, 83, 84, 92 in a manner 77f., 81 Independence (notion) 99-104, 106 indirect object see double-object construction in order to 37 /H-phrase 148 Instrument (feature) see INSTR Instrument (notion) et passim, 12 et passim, 15 et passim, 25, 36, 37, 61, 69, 86-91 abstract 64, 65f., 69, 81 in a subject position 92 et passim, 212 non-comitative see Instrument, in a subject position subjectivized see Instrument, in a subject position Instrument-undergoer (notion) 65f., 92 INSTR 6if., 63, 69, 70, 77f., 81-85, 92f«, 94f-, io6f., 134, 213 varieties of 63 et passim Intention (notion) 195-99 it, expletive 123 Italian 112, 113, 174 Japanese 112 keep 115, 123 Kwakiutl 112 language acquisition 1, 32, 38, 58, 109, n o , 214 language specificity 24f., 26, 211 lead 55, 56, 57 learn 57 lexical entries 41 et passim, 63, 67, 74, 97, 98, 122, 123, 124, 125, 129, 135, 137, 235 145, 146, 169, 178,211,212 subentries 44, 52, 129, 137, 171 lightning 113, 114 like 57 linguistic relevance see Principle of linguistic relevance linking 49f., 212 direct objects 170 et passim of A-case 38f., 107 of attributee case 123, 130, 142 of C-case 62, 75 et passim of Locative 173 subjects of mental verbs 140, 143, 144 see also E-sentence; S-sentence location see Locative Locative 71, 72, 83, 136, 167, 168, 175, 176 locative alternation i75f look 116 Manner (feature) see MANN Manner (notion) 12 et passim, 15 et passim, 61, 69, 70, 86 MANN 6if., 63, 68, 69, 74, 77, 84, 97, 119, 134,211 match 116 Material (notion) 12, 13 et passim, 64, 65f., 73 may 120 Means of communication (notion) 64, 65f., 69, 80, 81-84 Means of transport (notion) 64, 65f., 73, 81-84 mediation constraint 96—98, 108, 212 membership in category 212 see also categories, graded mental verbs 139 et passim, 181, 183 et passim, 212 meteorological terms 112—15 middle verbs 38f., 145 modals 45, 120 Momentary 181 negation 45, 120 nominalization 157, 158 Nootka 112 notions 5, 23, 24, 61, 66f., 86 et passim, 213 fuzzy 8, 14, 26, 27 graded 8, 14, 26, 27, 86f overlapping 8, 14, 26, 27 see also Abstract instrument; Agent; Ancillary instrument; Cause; Experiencer; Ingredient; Instrument; Instrument—undergoer; Manner; Material; Means of communication; Means of transport; Opposition; Patient; Proper part; Secondary tool; Tool) 236 Subject index noun phrase case-less 52-54, 72, 164-66, 211 interchange of 73, 86-88 temporal 71, 72 object cognate 170 direct 78, 83, 84, 132, 163 et passim, 212 human 79, 89 of mental state 144—46 of preposition see object, prepositional prepositional 132, 167-69, 170, 171, 173/-, 175-78, 212 selection hierarchy 164 see also double-object construction ^/-phrase 148 on purpose 36, 200—204 Opposition (notion) 15 et passim out 0/83 0tw-phrase 148 Passive 68, 106-9, 128—38, i48f., 164; see also by-phr&se adjectival i28f constraints on see First Constraint on Passivization; Second Constraint on Passivization Patient 28, 35, 163, 166, 167, 211 perceptual verbs 143 phrasal predicate see predicate, phrasal possessive 157-59, J i , 162 pragmatic factors 34, 74, 76, 78, 85, 89, 124 predicate n et passim, 213 inchoate 127 phrasal 115-17, 121 predicate-argument distinction in—15 preposition 212 deletion of 173, 178 recoverability of 173 see also object, prepositional; aboutphrase; after, alongside', ^/-phrase; by means of; by-phrase; for; of-phrzse; out of; 0i;*r-phrase; together with; without; with-phrase principles of feature assignment first principle 4of second principle 42f Principle of linguistic relevance 25, 26, 61, 84,85,86, 166,211 pro-forms 181-90, 198-204 processes 119 see also Event: Process verbs Process verbs 181 et passim production of sentences 52 progressive 141 Proper part (notion) 64, 65, 69, 8of., 84, 97, 126 prototypes 3, 95, 200 see also categories, graded pseudo-cleft sentences 190—92 psychological verbs see E-verb; mental verbs; S-verb quasi-agent 148 rain 112, 113 Recipient 164, 172 relate to 116 Relational verbs 181 et passim relevance see Principle of linguistic relevance reluctantly 36 Responsibility (notion) 195—99 result from 116 role 41, 42 Romanian 112, 113 routinization 131, 172 Russian 112, 113, 174 Saliency (notion) 99-104 Second Constraint on Passivization 131-33, 137 see also Attributee, genuine or "good" Secondary tool (notion) 64, 65f., 92 seem 115, 123 selection hierarchy see subject, selection hierarchy; object, selection hierarchy sell 54f., 56, 57 semantic homogeneity if., 213 semantic level 1, 4, 211 semantic role see also case semantic saturation 95, 96, 97, 98, 105, 106, 107, 109, n o , 134-36, 178, 179, 212 sentence production 52 should 120 should not 33, 34, 146, 147 snow 112, 113 Source 167 see also Locative Spanish 112, 113, 153, 156, 174 S-sentence 139, 144, 145, 146 see also S-verb; mental verbs S-verb 139, 142, 157, 158 see also mental verbs; S-sentence Stance verbs 183 et passim State 117-21, 141-44, 145, 146, 147, 150, i5if., 181 borderline cases 119, 120 Event-State ambiguity 120, 121, 143 implicit 126-28 subject of 122, 123 et passim Stimulus (notion) 139, 140, i47f., 163 see also S-sentence; S-verb strength see features, strength of subentries see lexical entries, subentries subject 28 et passim, 50 et passim, 62, 71, 74, 75f- Subject index conjoint 76, 86, 88, 104-6 constraints on 94-98 human 78f., 137 inanimate 33, 37, 44f., 93, 95, 98 of mental verb 139-44; see a^° Esentence; S-sentence non-agentive 52f., 109, 116 of passive sentence 134, 135, 136; see also Attributee, genuine or "good" selection hierarchy 28f., 92, 93, i39f., 212 of state 122, 123 subjectivization see Instrument, in a subject position suit 116 Swedish 159-62 thematic roles see also case Theme 21, 35, 164 see also Patient; Stimulus time 71, 72 together with et passim, 77?., 87, 89, 91 Tool 63, 65f., 80, 83 tough movement 133 Transitional Event verbs 181 intentional 183 et passim non-intentional 183 et passim 237 turn 118 undergo 116 universality 213 see also language specificity use et passim, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86f., 91 using see use verb of cognition 145 verb classes 180—208; hierarchy of 192— 99; see also complementaries; converse verbs; copular verbs; mental verbs; middle verbs; perceptual verbs via 83 Vividness (notion) 195-99 what happened? test 119, 141, 144 wholistic interpretation 130 Whorfian hypothesis 1, 114 without 84-85 with-phrase et passim, 60, 70, 7if., g6f., 107, 108, 142, 148 obligatory 71 would 120 Yiddish 159-62 Author index Allerton, D J 93, 116, 133 Anderson, J 29 Anisfeld, M 50 Antonopoulou, E 38, 39, 129, 135, 222 Atkinson-Hardy, J 123 Barcia, R 153 Bock, K 50 Bolinger, D 72, 79, 92, 134, 222 Booij, G 39, 225 Bowerman, M 215 Braine, M D S 35, 94, 123 Broadwell, G A 27, 28 Brown, R 223 Chafe, W 24 Chalkley, M A 146 Choi, S 215 Chomsky, N 28, 219 Cruse, D A 31, 93, 181, 210, 216 Culicover, P W 27, 219 DeLancey, S 4, 31, 216, 220, 223 de Villiers, J 109 Dixon, R M W 29, 39, 55, 131, 134, 146, 217 Dowty, D 1, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 35, 40, 46, 47, 55, 118, 128, 139, 140, 166, 199, 210, 216 Epstein, L 153 Ertel, S 50 Fillmore, C J 4, 24, 28, 40, 55, 93, 104 Fish, D 223 Foley, W A 56, 217 Forster, J F 220 Fox, D M C 146 Francis, W B 203 Givon, T 28, 177, 216 Goldberg, R 179 Greenbaum, S 2, 5, 60, 115, 129, 141, 180, 183, 215, 220, 221, 222, 225 238 Grimes, G E 93 Grimshaw, G 140, 144, 157 Gropen, J 179 Guberman, A 115, 123, 125 Hill, L A 15 Hollander, M 179 Huddleston, R D 146, 219 Hudson, R 62, 72, 78, 114, 171, 177, 222, 225 Jackendoff, R 4, 26, 28, 66, 93, 112, 136, 139, 200, 219 Jakobson, R 2, 93 James, W Jespersen, O 83, 133, 164, 165, 170 Johnson, M 218 Johnson, S 117 Kasof, J 46, 147, 151 Katz,J.36 Keeble, S 32 Keenan, E L 6, 131, 133, 217, 218 Klenbort, L 50 Kucera, H 203 Kuczaj, S A 146 Kuno, S 220 Lakoff, G 39, 184, 216, 218, 220 Lee,J Y 46, 147, 151 Leech, G 60, 115, 141, 180, 183, 221, 222, 225 Leslie, A M 32 Levin, B 29, 36, 217, 218 Lyons, J 112, 199 Manney, L 152 Maratsos, M 146 Marchand, H 93, 216 Mittwoch, A 36, 55 Moravcsik, E A 175, 225 Mourelatos, A P D 118 Nikiforidou, K 225 Author index 239 Nilsen, D L E 4, 27, 63, 64, 81, 218, 219 Ninio, A 221 Osgood, C E 46, 50 Palmer, F R 222 Pesetsky, D Pinker, S 130, 136, 179 Quine, W V 95 Quirk, R 2, 60, 81, 93, 107, 115, 116, 118, 141, 148, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 175, 176, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 204, 206, 221, 222, 225 Rappaport, M 29, 36, 217, 218 Ravin, Y Rice, S 137 Ross, J 6, 180, 182 Rosta, A 177, 222 Sapir, E 112 Schlesinger, I M 1, 2, 5, 8, 56, 58, 94, 96, 97, 98, 109, 112, 114, 149, 153, 155, 172,214,215,217,221,223 Schmalstieg, W R 217, 225 Sheintuch, G 134 Siewierska, A 34, 36, 97, 118, 129, 133, 216, 223 Simmons, R S 93 Slobin, D I 38 Spencer, N J 2, Starosta, S 31 Svartvik, J 2, 60, 81, 93, 107, 115, 116, 118, 141, 148, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 175, 176, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 204, 206, 221, 222, 225 Talmy, L 95, 157, 173, 213, 215, 224 Thalberg, I 32 Tversky, A 124 Van Van Van Van Dijk, T A 200 Oosten, J 39, 95 Valin, R 56, 217 Voorst, J 118, 220, 222 Waisman, F 112 Walmsley,J B 218 Wells, R S 35, 94, 123 Whorf,B L 114 Wierzbicka, A 218 Wilkins, W 4, 27, 219 Witherspoon, G 217 Wunderlich, D 225 Ziv, Y 134