Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
The research reported in this book has been financed largely through PRIN grants from the MURSTMIUR, namely Per una cartografia strutturale delle configurazioni sintattiche:€microvariazione nei dialetti italiani (1997–1999), La cartografia strutturale delle configurazioni sintattiche e le sue interfacce con la fonologia e la semantica. Parametri morfosintattici e fonosintattici (1999–2001), Categorie linguistiche:€Categorie di flessione nominale e verbale (Accordo, Aspetto); Nome e Verbo (2001–2003), I sistemi linguistici ‘speciali’ (apprendimento, disturbi) e la variazione tra i sistemi linguistici ‘normali’. Categorie funzionali del nome e del verbo (2003–2005), Strutture ricorsive in sintassi, morfologia e fonologia. Studi sulle varietà romanze. slave e albanesi (2005–2007), Morfosintassi e lessico:€ Categorie della flessione nominale e€verbale (2007–2009).
This page intentionally left blank G r a m m at ical Cat e gorie s Grammatical categories (e.g complementizer, negation, auxiliary, case) are some of the most important building blocks of syntax and morphology Categorization therefore poses fundamental questions about grammatical structures and about the lexicon from which they are built Adopting a ‘lexicalist’ stance, the authors argue that lexical items are not epiphenomena, but really represent the mapping of sound to meaning (and vice versa) that classical conceptions imply Their rule-governed combination creates words, phrases and sentences – structured by the ‘categories’ that are the object of the present inquiry They argue that the distinction between functional and non-Â�functional categories, between content words and inflections, is not as deeply rooted in grammar as is often thought In their argumentation they lay the emphasis on empirical evidence, drawn mainly from dialectal variation in the Romance languages, as well as from Albanian m r i ta m a n z in i a n d l e o na r d o m s avoia are both Full Professors of General Linguistics at the University of Florence In this series 94 95 96 97 98 99 100.â•… 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 j oan b yb e e : Phonology and language use l aur i e b aue r : Morphological productivity t homas e r ns t : The syntax of adjuncts e l i zab e t h c l os s t r augot t and r i c h a r d b d a sh e r : Regularity in semantic change maya hi c kmann: Children’s discourse: person, space and time across languages di ane b l ake mor e : Relevance and linguistic meaning: the semantics and pragmatics of discourse markers i an r ob e r t s and anna r ous s ou: Syntactic change: a minimalist approach to grammaticalization donka mi nkova: Alliteration and sound change in early English mar k c b ake r : Lexical categories: verbs, nouns and adjectives c ar l ota s s mi t h: Modes of discourse: the local structure of texts r oc he l l e l i e b e r : Morphology and lexical semantics hol ge r di e s s e l : The acquisition of complex sentences s har on i nke l as and c he r yl zo l l : Reduplication: doubling in morphology s us an e dwar ds : Fluent aphasia b ar b ar a dancygi e r and e ve s w e e t se r : Mental spaces in grammar: conditional constructions he w b ae r man, duns tan b r ow n a n d g r e v i l l e g c o r b e t t : The syntax–morphology interface: a study of syncretism mar c us t omal i n: Linguistics and the formal sciences: the origins of generative grammar s amue l d e p s t e i n and t dani e l se e ly: Derivations in minimalism paul de l acy: Markedness: reduction and preservation in phonology ye huda n fal k: Subjects and their properties p h mat t he w s : Syntactic relations: a critical survey mar k c b ake r : The syntax of agreement and concord gi l l i an c at r i ona r amc hand: Verb meaning and the lexicon: a first phase syntax p i e t e r muys ke n: Functional categories j uan ur i age r e ka: Syntactic anchors: on semantic structuring d r ob e r t l add: Intonational phonology second edition l e onar d h b ab b y: The syntax of argument structure b e l an dr e s he r : The contrastive hierarchy in phonology davi d adge r , dani e l har b our a n d l au r e l j wat k i n s: Mirrors and microparameters: phrase structure beyond free word order ni i na ni ng zhang: Coordination in syntax ne i l s mi t h: Acquiring phonology ni na t op i nt zi : Onsets: suprasegmental and prosodic behaviour c e dr i c b oe c kx, nor b e r t hor ns t e i n a n d ja i r o n u ň e s: Control as movement mi c hae l i s r ae l : The grammar of polarity: pragmatics, sensitivity, and the logic of scales m r i ta manzi ni and l e onar m savo i a : Grammatical Â�categories: variation in Romance languages Earlier issues not listed are also available CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS General Editors: p austin, j bresnan, b comrie, s crain, w.dressler, c j ewen, r lass, d lightfoot, k rice, i roberts, s romaine, n v smith Grammatical Categories: Variation in Romance Languages Grammatical Categories Va r i at i on i n Ro m ance L anguag e s M Rita M a n zin i University of Florence Leo na r d o M S avo ia University of Florence cambrid ge uni ve r s i t y p r e s s Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521765190 © M Rita Manzini and Leonardo M Savoia 2011 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2011 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Manzini, Maria Rita Grammatical categories : variation in romance languages / M Rita Manzini, Leonardo Maria Savoia â•… p.â•… cm – (Cambridge studies in linguistics ; 128) ISBN 978-0-521-76519-0 (hardback) 1.╇ Grammar, Comparative and general–Grammatical categories.â•… 2.╇Language and languages–Variation.â•…I.╇Savoia, Leonardo Maria, 1948–â•…II.╇Title P240.5.M36 2011 415–dc22 2010052183 ISBN 978-0-521-76519-0 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs or external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of tables Acknowledgements page x xi Introduction:€grammatical categories and the biolinguistic perspective 1 he structure and interpretation of (Romance) T complementizers 13 1.1 Romance complementizers are nominal and head their own noun phrase Structure of the complementizer phrase 1.2.1â•… Combining a left periphery in the complementizer phrase and in the embedded sentence; combining two complementizers 1.2.2â•… Some potential problems The left periphery beyond complementizers 1.3.1â•… Is order dictated by interpretation€– or interpretation by order? 1.3.2â•… Embedded contexts Conclusions 1.2 1.3 1.4 14 19 23 30 37 38 43 47 49 2.2 2.3 Variation in Romance k-complementizer systems Systems with two k-complementizers 2.1.1â•… Definite and indefinite complementizers€– and alternative analyses 2.1.2â•… Generalized wh–complementizers ‘If’ The interaction with (non-)finiteness Sentential negation:€adverbs 80 3.1 Sentential negation adverbs are nominal and argumental 83 2.1 49 54 61 65 73 vii viiiâ•… Contents 3.1.1â•… Further evidence 3.1.2â•… Sentential negation adverbs as nominal arguments 3.2 Ordering sentential negation with respect to other adverbs 3.2.1â•… The order of negation with respect to aspectual adverbs 3.2.2â•…The order of negation with respect to quantificational and manner adverbs 3.2.3â•… General discussion 3.3 The interaction of adverbial and verbal positions:€the participle 88 92 94 106 128 Sentential negation:€clitics 111 118 120 4.1 Interactions of negation clitics and subject clitics 4.2 Interactions of negation clitics with object clitics 4.2.1â•… Non-negative n 4.3 Negative concord and negative doubling 131 138 145 152 The middle-passive voice:€evidence from Albanian Data 5.1.1â•… Middle-passive morphologies 5.1.2â•… The interpretation of the middle-passive morphologies 5.1.3â•… The Arbëresh varieties The u clitic Specialized inflections 5.3.1â•… Be–participle 159 The auxiliary:€have/be alternations in the perfect Evidence 6.1.1â•… Theoretical background Auxiliary selection independent of transitivity/voice 6.2.1â•… Auxiliary selection according to person Splits according to transitivity/voice 6.3.1â•… Auxiliary selection according to voice 6.3.2â•… Auxiliary selection according to transitivity 6.3.3â•… Irreversibility Finer parametrization 6.4.1â•… Interactions between auxiliary selection according to transitivity/voice and according to person 6.4.2â•… The third auxiliary Some conclusions 196 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 160 160 164 169 172 184 188 196 203 208 209 216 216 218 222 223 224 228 233 Referencesâ•… 337 Jones, Michael 1993 Sardinian Syntax London:€Routledge Kallulli, Dalina 2006 ‘A unified analysis of passives, anticausatives and reflexives’, in O Bonami and P Cabredo Hofherr (eds.), Empirical Issues in Formal Syntax and Semantics 6, pp 201–25 Kayne, Richard 1975 French Syntax:€ the Transformational Cycle Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press â•… 1976 ‘French relative “que”’, in F Hensey and M Luján (eds.), Current Studies in Romance Linguistics, Washington, DC:€ Georgetown University Press, pp 255–99 â•… 1984 Connectedness and Binary Branching Dordrecht:€Foris â•… 1991 ‘Romance clitics, verb movement and PRO’, Linguistic Inquiry 22:€647–86 â•… 1993 ‘Toward a modular theory of auxiliary selection’, Studia Linguistica 47:€3–31 â•… 1994 The Antisymmetry of Syntax Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press â•… 2006 ‘On the parameters and on principles of pronunciation’, in H Broekhuis, N Corver, R Huybregts, U Kleinhenz and J Koster (eds.), Organizing Grammar:€ Linguistic Studies in Honor of Henk van Riemsdijk Berlin:€ Mouton de Gruyter, pp 289–99 â•… 2008a ‘Expletives, datives and the tension between morphology and syntax’, in M T Biberauer (ed.), The Limits of Syntactic Variation Amsterdam:€Benjamins, pp 175–217 â•… 2008b ‘A note on auxiliary alternations and silent causation’, ms., New York Â�University â•… 2009 Some silent first person plurals Merging Features Oxford Scholarship Online Monographs, pp 276–93 â•… 2010 ‘Why isn’t this a complementizer?’, in Comparisons and Contrasts Oxford University Press Kayne, Richard and Pollock, Jean-Yves 2001 New thoughts on stylistic inversion’, in A Hulk and J.-Y Pollock (eds.), Subject Inversion in Romance and the Theory of Universal Grammar Oxford University Press, pp 107–62 Kiparsky, Paul 1982 Explanation in Phonology Dordrecht:€Foris Kiparsky, Paul and Kiparsky, Carol 1970 ‘Fact’, in M Bierwish and K E Eidolph (eds.), Progress in Linguistics The Hague:€Mouton, pp 143–73 Klamer, Marian 2000 ‘How report verbs become quote markers and complementisers’, Lingua 110:€69–98 Kratzer, Angelika 2000 ‘Building statives’, paper delivered at the Berkeley Linguistic Society 26, http://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/GI5MmI0M/kratzer.building statives.pdf Labov, William 1994 Principles of Linguistic Change:€Internal Factors Oxford:€Blackwell La Fauci, Nunzio and Loporcaro, Michele 1989 ‘Passifs, avancements de l’objet indirect et formes verbales périphrastiques dans le dialecte d’Altamura (Pouilles)’, Rivista di linguistica, 1:€161–96 Laka, Itziar 1990 Negation in Syntax:€ on the Nature of Functional Categories and Projections Ph.D Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mass Larson, Richard 1985 ‘On the syntax of disjunction scope’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 3:€217–64 338â•… References â•… 1987 ‘“Missing prepositions” and the analysis of English free relative clauses’, Linguistic Inquiry 18:€239–66 â•… 1988 ‘On the double object construction’, Linguistic Inquiry 19:€335–91 Lebeaux, David 1984 ‘Anaphoric binding and the definition of PRO’, in C Jones and P Sells (eds.), Proceedings of NELS 14, GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass Ledgeway, Adam 2003a ‘Il sistema completivo dei dialetti meridionali:€la doppia serie di complementatori’, Rivista Italiana di Dialettologia 27:€89–147 â•… 2003b ‘L’estensione dell’ausiliare perfettivo avere nell’antico napoletano:€ Intransitività scissa condizionata da fattori modali’, Archivio Glottologico Italiano 88:€27–71 â•… 2005 ‘Moving through the left periphery:€ the dual complementiser system in the dialects of Southern Italy’, Transactions of the Philological Society 103:€339–96 â•… 2009 ‘Aspetti della sintassi della periferia sinistra del cosentino’, in D Pescarini (ed.), Studi sui dialetti della Calabria (Quaderni di lavoro ASIt 9), pp 3–24 Legendre, Geraldine 2007 ‘Optimizing auxiliary selection in Romance’, in R Aranovich (ed.), Split Auxiliary Systems Amsterdam:€John Benjamins, pp 145–80 â•… 2010 ‘A formal typology of person-based auxiliary selection in Italo-Romance’, in R D’Alessandro, A Ledgeway and I Roberts (eds.), Syntactic Variation:€the Dialects of Italy Cambridge University Press, pp 86–101 Lenneberg, Eric H 1967 Biological Foundations of Language New York:€Wiley Lewis, David 1975 ‘Adverbs of quantification’, in E Keenan (ed.), Formal Semantics of Natural Language Cambridge University Press, pp 3–15 Lieberman, Philip 1991 Uniquely Human:€the Evolution of Speech, Thought, and Selfless Behaviour Cambridge, Mass.:€Harvard University Press Löbner, Sebastian 1989 ‘German schon€– erst€– noch:€an integrated analysis’, Linguistics and Philosopy 12:€167–212 Longobardi, Giuseppe 1992 ‘In defence of the correspondence hypothesis:€ island effects and parasitic constructions in Logical Form’, in J Huang and R May (eds.), Logical Structure and Linguistic Theory Dordrecht:€ Kluwer, pp 149–96 â•… 1994 ‘Reference and proper names:€a theory of N-movement in syntax and Logical Form’, Linguistic Inquiry 25:€609–65 â•… 1996 ‘The syntax of N-raising:€a minimalist theory’, OTS Working Papers in Linguistics Utrecht University â•… 2000 ‘The structure of DPs:€some principles, parameters and problems’, in M Baltin and C Collins (eds.), Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic Theory Oxford: Blackwell â•… 2001 ‘Formal syntax, diachronic minimalism and etymology:€the history of French chez’, Linguistic Inquiry 32:€275–302 Loporcaro, Michele 1988 Grammatica storica del dialetto di Altamura Pisa:€Giardini â•… 2001 ‘La selezione degli ausiliari nei dialetti italiani:€ Dati e teorie’, in F Albano Leoni, E Stenta Krosbakken, R Sornicola and C Stromboli (eds.), Dati empirici e teorie linguistiche Atti del XXXIII congresso internazionale di studi della SLI Rome:€Bulzoni, pp 455–76 â•… 2007 ‘On triple auxiliation in Romance’, Linguistics 45:€173–222 Referencesâ•… 339 McCloskey, James 2004 ‘Questions and questioning in a local English’, in R Zanuttini, H Campos, E Herburger and P Portner (eds.),â•› Negation, Tense and Clausal Architecture:€ Cross–Linguistic Investigations Georgetown University Press, pp 87–126 McFadden, Thomas 2007 ‘Auxiliary selection’, Language and Linguistics Compass 1:€674–708 MacSwan, Jeff 2000 ‘The architecture of the bilingual language faculty:€evidence from intrasentential code switching’, Bilingualism:€Language and Cognition 3:€37–54 Manzini, M Rita 1982 ‘Italian prepositions before infinitives’ MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 3:€115–22 â•… 1986 ‘On Italian si’, in H Borer (ed.), The Syntax of Pronominal Clitics (Syntax and Semantics vol 18) New York:€Academic Press, pp 241–62 â•… 2000 ‘Sentential complementation:€the subjunctive’, in P Coopmans, M Everaert and J Grimshaw (eds.), Lexical Specification and Insertion Amsterdam:€ John Benjamins, pp 241–67 â•… 2009 ‘Pro, pro and NP-trace (raising) are interpretations’, in K Grohmann (ed.), Phase Theory:€Features, Arguments, Interpretations Amsterdam/Oxford:€Elsevier, pp 131–80 Manzini, M Rita and Roussou, Anna 2000 ‘A minimalist theory of A-movement and control’, Lingua 110:€409–47 Manzini, M Rita, Roussou, Anna and Savoia, Leonardo M forthcoming ‘Voice morphology in Albanian and Greek’, in S Özsoy and A Gürel (eds.), Current Issues in Mediterranean Syntax Manzini, M Rita and Savoia, Leonardo M 1998 ‘Clitics and auxiliary choice in Italian dialects:€their relevance for the Person ergativity split’, Recherches Linguistiques de Vincennes 27:€115–38 â•… 2002 ‘Negative adverbs are neither Adv nor Neg’, in Masako Hirotani (ed.), Proceedings of North East Linguistic Society 32, GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp 327–46 â•… 2003 ‘The nature of complementizers’, Rivista di Grammatica Generativa 28:€87– 110 â•… 2005 I dialetti italiani e romanci Morfosintassi generativa, Alessandria:€Edizioni dell’Orso, vols â•… 2007 A Unification of Morphology and Syntax:€Studies in Romance and Albanian Dialects London:€Routledge â•… 2008a Work Notes on Romance Morphosyntax:€Appunti di morfosintassi romanza, Alessandria, Edizioni dell’Orso â•… 2008b ‘Uninterpretable features are incompatible in morphology with other minimalist postulates’, in R Freidin, C Otero and M L Zubizarreta (eds.), Foundational Issues in Linguistic Theory Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press, pp 43–72 â•… 2008c ‘Non-active voice in Albanian:€implications for the theory of movement’, in L M Savoia, Studi sulle varietà arbëreshe, Università degli Studi della Calabria, Rende â•… 2009a ‘Mesoclisis in the imperative:€ phonology, morphology or syntax?’, in V Moscati and E Servidio (eds.), Proceedings XXVIII Incontro di Grammatica Generativa, Studies in Linguistics on line 3, Università di Siena, pp 51–76 340â•… References â•… 2009b ‘Morphology dissolves into syntax:€ infixation and doubling in Romance languages’, Annali online dell’Università di Ferrara Sezione di Lettere IV, 1:€1–28.n â•… 2010 ‘Syncretism and suppletivism in clitic systems:€underspecification, silent clitics or neither?’, in R D’Alessandro, A Ledgeway and I Roberts (eds.), Syntactic Variation:€the Dialects of Italy Cambridge University Press, pp 86–101 â•… to appear ‘Reducing “case” to “agreement”:€nominal inflections in the Geg Albanian variety of Shkodër’, Linguistic Variation Yearbook Manzini, M Rita and Wexler, Kenneth 1987 ‘Binding theory, parameters and learnability’, Linguistic Inquiry 18:€413–44 Marantz, Alec 1984 On the Nature of Grammatical Relations Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press â•… 1997 ‘No escape from syntax:€don’t try morphological analysis in the privacy of your own lexicon’, in A Dimitriadis, L Sieger, Cl Surek-Clark and A Williams (eds.) Proceedings of the 21st Annual Penn Linguistics Colloquium, U Penn Working Papers in Linguistics 4.2, pp 201–25 Mensching, Guido and Remberger, Eva-Maria 2010 ‘Focus fronting and the left periphery in Sardinian’, in R D’Alessandro, A Ledgeway and I Roberts (eds.), Syntactic Variation:€the Dialects of Italy Cambridge University Press, pp 261–76 Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm 1899 Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen Dritter Band:€Syntax Leipzig Michaelis, Laura 1996 ‘On the use and meaning of already’, Linguistics and Philosophy 19:477502 Mioto, Carlos 2003 Focalizaỗóo e quantificaỗóo, Revista Letras 61:€169–89 Moro, Andrea 1997 The Raising of Predicates Cambridge University Press Newmeyer, Frederick 2005 ‘On split CPs, uninterpretable features and the “perfectness” of language’, ZAS Papers in Linguistics 35, pp 399–422 Nichols, Johanna 1992 Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time Chicago University Press Nilsen, Øystein 2003 Eliminating Positions, Ph.D Dissertation, University of Utrecht Origgi, Gloria and Sperber, Dan 2000 ‘Evolution communication and the proper function of language’, in P Carruthers and A Chamberlain (eds.), Evolution and the Human Mind:€Language, Modularity and Social Cognition Cambridge University Press, pp 140–69 Paoli, Sandra 2007 ‘The fine structure of the left periphery:€ COMPs and Subjects Evidence from Romance’, Lingua 117:€1057–79 â•… 2010 ‘In focus:€ an investigation of information and contrastive constructions’, in R D’Alessandro, A Ledgeway and I Roberts (eds.), Syntactic Variation:€the Dialects of Italy Cambridge University Press, pp 277–91 Parry, M Mair 1995 ‘Some observations on the syntax of clitic pronouns in Piedmontese’, in M Maiden and J C Smith (eds.), The Romance Languages and Contemporary Linguistic Theory Amsterdam:€Benjamins, pp 133–60 â•… 1997 ‘Preverbal negation and clitic ordering, with particular reference to a group of North-West Italian dialects’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 113: 244–70 Referencesâ•… 341 Parsons, Terence 1990 Events in the Semantics of English Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press Pesetsky, David 1982 Paths and Categories Ph.D Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mass â•… 1985 ‘Morphology and logical form’, Linguistic Inquiry 16: 193–246 â•… 1991 Zero Syntax vol 2:€Infinitives Ms., MIT, Cambridge, Mass â•… 2008 ‘Russian case morphology and the syntactic categories’, paper delivered at the Mediterranean Syntax Meeting€ – II, Bogazici University, Istanbul, 16 Â�October Pesetsky, David and Torrego, Esther 2007 ‘The syntax of valuation and the interpretability of features’, in S Karimi, V Samiian and W Wilkins (eds.), Phrasal and Clausal Architecture Amsterdam:€Benjamins, pp 262–94 Philippaki-Warburton, Irene 1973 ‘Modern Greek verb conjugation:€inflectional morphology in a transformational grammar’, Lingua 32:€193–226 Poletto, Cecilia 2000 The Higher Functional Field Oxford University Press â•… 2001 ‘Complementizer deletion and verb movement in standard Italian’, in G Cinque and G Salvi (eds.), Current Studies in Italian Syntax Amsterdam:€North Holland, pp 265–86 Poletto, Cecilia and Vanelli, Laura 1995 ‘Gli introduttori delle frasi interrogative nei dialetti italiani settentrionali’, in E Banfi, G Bonfadini, P Cordin and M Iliescu (eds.), Italia settentrionale:€crocevia di idiomi romanzi Tübingen:€Niemeyer, pp 145–58 Pollock, Jean-Yves 1989 ‘Verb movement, universal grammar and the structure of IP’, Linguistic Inquiry 20:€365–424 Polinsky, Maria and Potsdam, Eric 2006 ‘Expanding the scope of control and raising’, in B Davies and S Dubinsky (eds.), Special Issue on Raising and Control Syntax 9:€171–9 Postal, Paul 1974 On Raising Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press Pulvermüller, Friedemann 1999 ‘Words in the brain’s language’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22:€253–336 Pylkkänen, Liina 2002 Introducing Arguments Ph.D Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mass Ralli, Angeliki 1988 Eléments de la morphologie du Grec Moderne:€La structure du verbe Doctoral dissertation, University of Montreal â•… 2005 Morfologia Athens:€Patakis Reinhart, Tanya 1997 Syntactic Effects of Lexical Operations:€Reflexives and Unaccusatives OTS Working Papers in Linguistics, Utrecht University Reinhart, Tanya and Siloni, Tali 2005 ‘The Lexicon-Syntax parameter:€reflexivization and other arity operations’, Linguistic Inquiry 36:€389–436 Renzi, Lorenzo 1987 ‘Le développement de l’article en roman’, in C Buridant (ed.), Romanistique€ – Germanistique:€ une confrontation University of Â�Strasbourg, pp 297–317 Rivero, María Luisa 1994 ‘Clause structure and V-movement in the languages of the Balkans’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 12:€63–120 Rizzi, Luigi 1982 Issues in Italian Syntax Dordrecht:€Foris â•… 1986 ‘On the status of subject clitics in Romance’, in O Jaeggli and C Silva-Â�Corvalan (eds.), Studies in Romance Linguistics Dordrecht:€Foris, pp 391–419 342â•… References â•… 1990 Relativized Minimality Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press â•… 1996 ‘Residual verb second and the wh–criterion’, in A Belletti and L Rizzi (eds.), Parameters and Functional Heads Oxford University Press, pp 63–90 â•… 1997 ‘The fine structure of the left periphery’, in L Haegeman (ed.), Elements of Grammar Dordrecht:€Kluwer, pp 281–337 â•… 2001 ‘On the position “Int(errogative)” in the left periphery of the clause’, in G Cinque and G Salvi (eds.), Current Studies in Italian Syntax Amsterdam:€North Holland, pp 287–96 â•… 2004 ‘Locality and left periphery’, in A Belletti (ed.), Structures and Beyond Â�Volume 3:€ The Cartography of Syntactic Structures Oxford University Press, pp 223–51 Roberts, Ian 1993 The nature of subject clitics in Franco-Provenỗal Valdotain, in A Belletti (ed.), Syntactic Theory and the Dialects of Italy Turin:€Rosenberg & Sellier, pp 319–53 Roberts, Ian and Roussou, Anna 2003 Syntactic Change Cambridge University Press Rohlfs, Gerhard 1969[1954] Grammatica storica della lingua italiana e dei suoi dialetti Sintassi e formazione delle parole Turin:€Einaudi â•… 1977 Le guascon Tübingen:€Niemeyer Ronjat, Jules 1937 Grammaire Istorique des Parlers Provenỗaux Modernes t.III Montpellier:€Société des Langues Romanes Rooryck, Johan 2009 ‘A compositional analysis of French negation’, ms., University of Leiden Rosenbaum, Peter 1967 The Grammar of English Predicate Complement Constructions Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press Roussou, Anna 1994 The Syntax of Complementizers Ph.D Dissertation, University College London â•… 2008 ‘Voice morphology and ergativity in Modern Greek’ Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Greek Linguistics (ICGL8), University of Ioannina â•… 2009 ‘In the mood for control’, in J Quer (ed.), Lingua 119 (Special Issue on Mood):€1811–36 â•… 2010 ‘Subjects on the edge’, in Ph Panagiotidis (ed.), The Complementizer Phase Oxford University Press, pp 76–116 Saccon, Graziella 1992 VP-internal arguments and locative subjects Proceedings of NELS 22, GLSA, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp 383–97 Santorini, Beatrice 1989 The Generalization of the Verb-Second Constraint in the Â�History of English Ph.D Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Savoia, Leonardo M 2008 Studi sulle varietà arbёreshe Università della Calabria, Rende Savoia, Leonardo M and Manzini, M Rita 2007 ‘Variazione sintattica nel costrutto ausiliare Arbёresh:€la variazione come problema teorico’, in Minoranze Linguistiche Prospettive, strumenti, territori Rome:€Carocci, pp 85–102 â•… 2010 ‘Lexicalization of 3rd person object clitics:€clitic enclisis and clitic drop’, in R D’Alessandro, A Ledgeway and I Roberts (eds.), Syntactic Variation:€the Dialects of Italy Cambridge University Press:€102–18 Schmid, Heinrich 1951/52 ‘Zur Geschichte der rätoromanischen Deklination’, Vox Romanica 12:€21–81 Referencesâ•… 343 Schwartz, Bonnie and Vikner, Sten 1996 ‘The verb always leaves IP in V2 clauses’, in A Belletti and L Rizzi (eds.), Parameters and Functional Heads Oxford University Press, pp 11–62 Sgrilli, Paola 1983 Il “Libro di Sidrac” salentino Pisa:€Pacini Shlonsky, Ur 1994 ‘Agreement in comp’, The Linguistic Review 11:€351–75 Solano, Francesco 1972 Manuale di lingua albanese Corigliano Calabro Sorace, Antonella 2000 ‘Gradients in auxiliary selection with intransitive verbs’, Language 76:€859–90 â•… 2004 ‘Gradience at the lexicon-syntax interface:€evidence from auxiliary selection and implications for unaccusativity’, in A Alexiadou, E Anagnostopoulou and M Everaert (eds.), The Unaccusativity Puzzle:€ Explorations of the Syntax-Lexicon Interface Oxford University Press, pp 243–87 Sperber, Dan and Wilson, Deirdre 1986 Relevance Oxford:€Blackwell Starke, Michal 2004 ‘On the inexistence of Specifiers and the nature of heads’, in A Belletti (ed.) Structures and Beyond Oxford University Press â•… 2009 ‘Nanosyntax:€a short primer to a new approach to language’, Nordlyd (Tromsoe University Working Papers in Language and Linguistics) 36.1:€1–6 Stowell, Timothy 1981 Origins of Phrase Structure Ph.D Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Mass Svenonius, Peter 2002 ‘Subject positions and the placement of adverbials’, in P Svenonius (ed.), Subjects, Expletives and the EPP Oxford University Press, pp 201–42 de Swart, Henriëtte 1993 Adverbs of Quantification New York:€Garland Szabolcsi, Anna 1994 ‘The noun phrase’, in K Kiss and F Kiefer (eds.), The Syntactic Structure of Hungarian Syntax and Semantics 27 New York:€Academic Press, pp 179–274 Taraldsen, K Tarald 1978 ‘On the NIC, vacuous application, and the that-t Filter’, ms., MIT, Cambridge, Mass â•… 1990 ‘D-projections and N-projection in Norwegian’, in J Mascaró and M Nespor (eds.), Grammar in Progress:€ Glow Essays for Henk van Riemsdijk Dordrecht :€Foris, pp 419–31 â•… 2002 ‘The que/qui alternation and the distribution of expletives’, in P Svenonius (ed.) Subjects, Expletives and the EPP Oxford University Press, pp 29–42 Terzi, Arhonto and Wexler, Ken 2002 ‘A-chains and S-homophones in children’s grammar’, in M Hirotani (ed.) Proceedings of NELS 32, GLSA; University of Massachusetts at Amherst, pp 519–37 Torres Morais, M Aparecida and Salles, Heloisa to appear ‘Parametric change in the grammatical encoding of indirect objects in Brazilian Portuguese’, Probus Tortora, Christina 2002 ‘Romance enclisis, prepositions, and aspect’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 20:€725–57 Trommer, Jochen 2005 ‘Closest c-command in Albanian non-active constructions’, Â�paper presented at Morphosyntax Workshop, University of Vienna Turano, Giuseppina 2002 ‘On modifiers preceded by the article in Albanian DPs’, Â�University of Venice Working Papers in Linguistics 12:€169–215 â•… 2003 ‘Similarities and differences between standard Albanian and Arbëresh numerals:€A case of micro-parametric variation’, University of Venice Working Papers in Linguistics, 13:€155–77 344â•… References Vincent, Nigel 1997 ‘The emergence of the D-system in Romance’, in A van Kemenade and N Vincent (eds.), Parameters of Morphosyntactic Change Cambridge University Press, pp 149–69 Wasow, Thomas 1977 ‘Transformations and the lexicon’, in P Culicover, T Wasow and A Akmajian (eds.), Formal Syntax New York:€Academic Press, pp 327–60 Weiss, Helmut 2002 ‘Three types of negation:€a case study in Bavarian’, in S Barbiers, L Cornips and S van dee Kleij (eds.), Syntactic Variation Meertens Institut Electronic Publications in Linguistics Whitman, John 2000 ‘Relabelling’, in S Pintzuk, G.Tsoulas and A Warner (eds.), Diachronic Syntax:€Models and Mechanisms Oxford University Press, pp 220–38 Zamboni, Alberto 1990 ‘Premesse morfologiche e tipologiche del composto italiano “capinera”, “pettirosso”’ In Parallela 4:€Morfologia/ Morphologie Tübingen:€Â�Niemeyer, pp 97–109 â•… 1998 ‘Cambiamento di lingua o cambiamento di sistema? Per un Â�bilancio cronologico della transizione’, in J Herman (ed.), La transizione dal latino alle lingue romanze Tübingen:€Niemeyer, pp 99–127 Zanuttini, Raffaella 1997 Negation and Clausal Structure New York:€Oxford Â�University Press Index ablative, 240, 283 syncretism with dative, 283 accusative, 191, 240, 277 as internal argument, 253 syncretism with nominative, 251, 284 adjective not sensitive to case, 268 preceded by article, 266 adverb aspectual, 80, 94, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 119, 125 aspectual/manner, 107 aspectual/quantificational, 102, 121 deictic/quantificational, 125 follows participle, 124 hierarchy, 82 manner, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119, 125 order, 108, 116, 120 position, 116, 120, 126 precedes participle, 124, 125 quantificational, 111, 112, 117, 119, 125 Agliano (Tuscany), 137 agreement, 11 as cheking, 238 as sharing of referential properties, 238 in copular construction, 268 in NP, 269 Aliano (Lucania), 225 Àllai (Sardinia), 36 ambiguity is not necessarily resolved syntactically, 107 anticausative interpretation, 216 vs reflexive, 216 Applicative, 294, 328 arbitrarization, 182 Arconate (Lombardy), 116 Ardaùli (Sardinia), 65 Arena (Calabria), 20, 51, 64 article and inflection, 287 as K, 276 from case to, 277 postposed, 247, 287 with adjectives, 266, 270 with kinship terms, 242, 270, 271 auxiliary, 10 be independent of transitivity and voice, 201 have independent of transitivity and voice, 201 syncretism of have and be, 228, 232 triple, 227 auxiliary selection (non-)reversible, 203, 222, 223 according to person, 201 according to person and transitivity, 225 according to transitivity, 218 according to voice, 216 in middle-passive, 198 Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy (ASH), 223 Bagolino (Lombardy), 320 base bare, 285 verbal, 190 be as defective predicate, 222 auxiliary and copula, 222 Bedizzano (Tuscany), 138, 141 biolinguistic perspective, biolinguistic program, Briga Novarese (Piedmont), 228, 229, 230 Buonabitacolo (Campania), 227 Buru, 34 345 346â•… Index C, 24 as a verbal position, 17 as position of interrogative modality, 26 domain, 141 Finiteness, 41, 61, 313 Focus, 41 Force, 41, 61, 312 recursion, 28–30 Cantoira (Piedmont), 24, 27, 95, 96, 105, 108, 110, 112, 114, 115 Càrcare (Liguria), 143, 144, 151 cartography, 10, 37–8 Casaccia (Grisons, Val Bregaglia), 314 case, 10, 11 (in)sensitivity of adjectives to, 272 abstract, 299 as a feature, 244 as argument, 269 as denotational properties, 277 as descriptive label, 255 as N, Q and D specifications, 286 as nominal class, 255 as primitive category, 277 as quantificational closure, 290 as referential closure, 294 as Tense, 245 constraints, 298, 300 in the absence of inflections, 256 legible at LF interface, 236 loss of, 276, 290 of clitics, 309, 310 of pronouns, 308 Case Resistance Principle, 30 Casei Gerola (Lombardy), 86 Càsola (Tuscany), 134, 135 Casorezzo (Lombardy), 86, 99, 106, 116 Castellazzo Bormida (Piedmont), 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 95, 105, 109 Castellinaldo (Piedmont), 124 Castiglione d’Adda (Lombardy), 28, 101, 105 categorization, 4–5 Celle di Bulgheria (Campania), 122 Cerano (Piedmont), 23, 85 chain, 11, 153, 206 in doubling, 154 change, 298, 301 Civate (Lombardy), 77 Civita (Calabria, Arbëresh), 172 clause-typing, 29 clitic doubling, 153 Colledimacine (Abruzzi), 225 Colonnata (Tuscany), 139, 140 comparatives, 62 complementation as relativization, 65 complementizer, 9, 10, 12 and subjunctive, 52–4, 59 as head of noun phrase, 17 as relative pronoun, 18–19 coinciding with demonstrative, 15, 34 coinciding with verb, 35 coinciding with wh–, 15, 55, 58, 59, 61, 62 definite, 55, 57, 61, 63, 65, 71 deletion, 56–9, 316 factive, 32 functional projection of the verb, 14 generalized wh–, 63 indefinite, 55, 61, 63, 65, 69, 71 interrogative, 69 interrogative/hypothetical, 65, 66, 67, 68 matrix, 36 modal, 72 polarity, 71 vs wh–phrase, 73, complementizer agreement, 314 complex NP islands, 31–2 concept, concepts, 4, geometrical, Corte (Veneto), 40 Cravagliana (Piedmont), 86 cycle, 11 dative, 240 as Q, 252 as superset-of, 283, 293 inherent possession, 251 singular syncretic with non-oblique plural, 311 syncretism with ablative, 283 syncretism with genitive, 250, 265, 280, 283, 288, 293 default, 61 an inadequate notion, 281 definite declension, 239, 290 Dego (Liguria), 145, 146, 156 Determiner, 11, 238, 271 as referential closure, 294 Indexâ•… 347 combines with definite inflection, 246 development of, 290 in AP, 271 in genitive, 288, 291 preadjectival, 271 discourse-anchoring, 90, 136, 138, 141, 210, 309 Distributed Morphology, 3, 7, 12, 137, 142, 229, 236, 245, 246, 260, 281, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301 ECP, 86 enclisis, 85 proclisis alternations, 172 English, 322 EPP argument, 93, 206, 207, 253, 282 as a variable, 75 as D, 238 impersonal, 181 in participial sentences, 216 morphological-level, 75 realized by verb inflection, 74 syntactic-level, 75 verb inflection as, 178 ergativity split according to aspect, 188 according to person, 209 event domain, 82 elementary, 93, 112, 119 structure, 90 event-anchoring, 90, 136, 138, 141, 210 Exceptional Case Marking, 253 factive islands, 32 sentences, 31 faculty of language broad (FLB), 1, narrow (FLN), 1, feature checking, 11 uninterpretable, 11 unvalued, 11 Filattiera (Tuscany), 27 Finale Emilia (Emilia), 84 Firenze (Tuscany), 36 focus, 19, 22, 41, 59, 315 as interpretation, 42 Fontane (Piedmont), 124, 155 Fontanigorda (Liguria), 43, 73 Forno Valle Strona (Piedmont), 204 French, 46, 85 functional category, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 235 hierarchy, 12 lexicon, gender as nominal class, 238 genitive, 240, 277 as superset-of, 265, 283, 293 introduced as predication, 264 introduced by an article, 262 scope of, 282 syncretism with dative, 250, 265, 280, 288, 293 syncretism with nominative, 281 under negation, 87 Gizzeria (Calabria), 113 Gjirokastër (Albanian), 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173, 190, 197, 198, 200, 208, 216, 217, 218, 221 grammatical categories, 8, functions, grammaticalization, 12, 35–6, 84 Greek, 186, 193 Guglionesi (Molise), 50, 60, 63 hanging topic, 47 have as non-defective predicate, 223 denotes set inclusion, 231 deontic, 222 derived from be, 231 hierarchy as scope, 237 homophony vs single lexical entry, 87 I domain, 141 –i inflection, 289 as Q closure, 285 distribution, 280 I-language, 1, Impoverishment rule, 282 Inclusiveness, 61 348â•… Index indefinite declension, 239 infinitive followed by negation, 126 languages without, 51 preceded by negation, 121 innateness, instrumental, 283 Interface Uniformity, 6, 176, 178, 188, 218 inversion complex, 45 Italian, 16, 19, 31–2, 36, 39, 42, 43, 47, 52, 56, 57, 65, 68, 71, 72, 74, 76, 88, 125, 158, 182, 196, 197, 219, 221, 222, 223, 308, 315, 316, 321, 323, 328 kinship terms, 242, 246 l morphology as definiteness, 290 as inflection, 307 mutual exclusion, 292 La Pli de Mareo (Alto Adige/ South Tyrol), 20, 84, 316 Làconi (Sardinia), 60, 66, 76, 221 Late Insertion, 229, 230, 236 Latin, 278, 281 left periphery, 41, 45, 59, 314 above complementizer, 21–3 below and above complementizer, 23–5 in noun phrases, 23 under complementizer, 20 lexical base, 238 categories, items, parametrization, 2, terminal, 235, 275, 289, 299 lexicon, 6, functional, functional vs substantive, 275 LF interface closures at, 259 locative, 283 Luras (Sardinia), 33 Margarita (Piedmont), 97, 98, 110, 112, 114, 115, 123, 127 Marzano Appio (Campania), 113 meaning, 6, Mezzenile (Piedmont), 24, 97, 155 middle-passive, 10 anticausative reading, 179 as defective predicate, 220 as predicate with an open variable, 208 be-participle, 164, 169, 188, 192 clitic, 161 imperfective, 186 impersonal reading, 167, 181 movement analysis, 233 passive reading, 166, 177, 192 perfective, 186 reflexive reading, 165, 177, 180 specialized inflection, 159, 169, 184, 186 split according to aspect, tense, 163, 187 vs active, 164, 171 with unaccusatives, 167 with unergative verbs, 166 Miglionico (Lucania), 67 Minimalist program, 6, 236, 246, 275, 289, 294, 301 Minimality, 33 minimizer, 84 Modena (Emilia), 39, 44 Molina di Ledro (Trentino), 226 Mombercelli (Piedmont), 102, 103, 105, 108, 109, 110 Montaldo (Piedmont), 83, 97, 104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 123 Montebello Ionico/ Saline Ioniche (Calabria), 209 Montenerodomo (Abruzzi), 50, 64 Morano (Calabria), 314 Morcone (Campania), 202 morphological structure, 12 morphology unification with syntax, 236, 273 Müstair (Grisons), 323 Mustér (Grisons), 1098n, 104, 106 mutual exclusion negation/negative polarity argument, 156 subject/object clitics, 137 Nanosyntax, 299, 301, 302 Neg Criterion, 81 Neg position, 80, 81, 82, 84, 91, 94, 108, 117, 122, 128, 129, 132, 137, 151, 319, 322, 339 negation, 9, 11 negation adverb, 81, 82, 135 and argument structure, 88, 91 and aspectual adverb, 94, 102 Indexâ•… 349 and negative argument, 83, 84, 87 and person split, 91 as a nominal element, 91 as argument, 91 as internal argument, 154 bare noun, 84, 85 complementary distribution with negative arguments and adverbs, 155 interaction with internal argument, 153 introduces a variable, 154 minimizer, 88 nominal, 117 nothing-type, 84 no-type, 98, 115 position, 118, 121 presuppositional vs non-presuppositional, 94 quantifying over internal argument, 92, 93 negation clitic, 80, 81, 128, 129 and discourse-anchoring, 136 and event-anchoring, 136 and partitive, 151 and person split, 129, 130, 136, 148 and subject clitic, 135, 136, 137 as a negative polarity element, 152 as nominal element, 138, 152 as object clitic, 138 base generated, 130 complementary distribution with accusative, 147 complementary distribution with partitive, 149 distribution, 129, 144 doubling, 130, 139, 145, 153 in C-domain, 143, 148 in I-domain, 143, 148 introduces a variable, 154 two positions of, 133, 141 negative concord, 81, 130, 143, 152, 153 operator, 70, 87, 91, 92, 118, 152 polarity item, 81, 92, 152 polarity item as variable, 87 quantifier, 81 nominal class as denotational element, 277 as internal argument, 252 as sole inflection, 284 in the scope of D/Q, 255, 256, 258, 284 nominative, 191, 240, 277 syncretism with accusative, 251, 284 non-finite verbs, 82 null subject language, 75 Oblique, 260 of its lexical content, 232 Old French, 85, 295, 296, 310 opacity, 298 Optimality Theory, 137 Orsomarso (Calabria), 114 Oviglio (Piedmont), 38, 83, 147, 148, 149, 153 Pamparato (Piedmont), 103, 105, 108, 109, 112, 113 parameter micro- vs macro-, 234 participle (non-)agreeing, 200, 209 as independent sentence, 123, 203, 204 lacks temporal reference, 123 position, 121 preceded by negation, 121 partitive, 85, 87, 91, 92, 149, 151 selected by negation, 82, 85 passive as chain formation, 177, 178, 179 interpretation, 216 movement analysis, 159 vs anticausative, impersonal, reflexive, 159 past imperfective, 162, 165, 166, 184, 187 perfective, 162, 166, 169 Paulilàtino (Sardinia), 53, 60, 64, 70, 74 person (ir)reversibility of split, 227 1st plural, 213 2nd plural, 213 discourse-anchored vs event-anchored, 212 lack of split in the plural, 213 singular vs plural, 211 split, 82, 90, 209, 210 split under negation, 90 Pescolanciano (Abruzzi), 201 phase, 313 Piverone (Piedmont), 115 pluperfect, 230 plural bare, 86 polarity item, 71 operator, 71 350â•… Index Pomaretto (Piedmont), 95, 105 Portocannone (Molise, Arbëresh), 169, 170, 171, 173, 185, 190, 205 possession as inclusion, 251 possessive construction, 283 pronoun, 271 poverty of stimulus argument, Pozzaglio (Lombardy), 95, 105 Pramollo (Piedmont), 84 predicate projecting referential contents, 237 Premana (Lombardy), 84 prepositions as sentential introducers, 18, 62 as two place predicates, 260 aspectual type categories, 260 license all cases, 259 present, 162, 166, 184, 187 present perfect, 164, 165, 166 Q-floated position, 87 Quarna Sopra (Piedmont), 88 Quarna Sotto (Piedmont), 83, 89, 92, 121 question operator, 57, 69, 70 raising interpretation, 192 readjustment rules, 278, 298 reflexive interpretation, 216 vs anticausative, 216 relative analysis for conditionals, 69 appositive, 64 clause, 45, 63, 65 complement sentences, 70 restrictive, 64 representational, grammar, 11 rhetorical question, 41 Romanian, 287, 288, 289, 309 Russian, 85 Ruvo di Puglia (Apulia), 72 –s inflection, 284, 295 absent from expletive, 305 as definiteness, 306 as Q, 282, 297, 305 denotational content, 282 S.Angelo Lodigiano (Lombardy), 100, 106 S.Bartolomeo Pesio (Piedmont), 150, 156 S.Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), 202 S.Benedetto Ullano (Calabria, Arbëresh), 172 S.Maria Maggiore (Piedmont), 40 Scuol (Grisons), 20 Secinaro (Abruzzi), 72 selection, 30 s-selection, 313 serial verbs, 34 Shkodёr (Albanian), 1099n, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173, 177, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 189, 191, 192 silent categories, 4, 7, 45 Sillano (Tuscany), 132, 152 si-type clitic and person split, 141 as dative, 221 as internal argument, 177, 183 as middle-passive, 207 as pronominal object clitic, 172, 173, 178 as reflexive, 176 as variable, 69, 176 correlates with be, 197 variation, 174, 182 vs impersonal pronoun, 183 with transitive, 182 Soazza (Grisons), 199, 219 Stroppo/ Macra (Piedmont), 83, 86, 87 subject clitic, 38–40, 43–4 lexical, 38–40, 44, 313 subject clitic inversion, 24–7 subjunctive, 52–4, 57, 70 particle, 52 Subset Principle, 281, 299 Superset Principle, 299 syncretism (non-)accidental, 301 contextual vs absolute, 296 –t inflection as plural, 258 as superset of, 258 terminal abstract, 275 thematic vowel, 186, 187, 190, 243, 278, 279, 283, 284, 285 theta-theory, 12 Indexâ•… 351 topic, 19, 22, 24, 28, 41, 43, 59 as interpretation, 42 transitive as complex predicate, 93, 208 transitivity, 207, 223 Trecate (Piedmont), 85, 233 Trun (Grisons), 46, 84, 220 unaccusative active, 181 as defective predicate, 220 as elementary event, 93 as predicate with a single argument, 208 unergative as concealed transitive, 167, 208 as incorporating internal argument, 93 uniformity thesis, 2, Urbino (Marche), 307 V2, 313 embedded, 20–1, 24 embedded in questions, 28 vs complementizer, 58 Vagli di Sopra (Tuscany), 132, 133, 152, 309 variable individual, 64 propositional, 69, 71 variation, 9, 294 language, 2–3 Vastogirardi (Molise), 226 Vella (Grisons), 302, 303, 304, 305, 306 Vena (Calabria, Arbëresh), 241, 242, 243, 259, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 270, 272, 273 Verbicaro (Calabria), 201 Viano (Tuscany), 131, 134, 135, 153 Viguzzolo (Piedmont), 26, 28, 100, 101, 105 voice, 207, 223 wh–, 62, 72 argument, 15 determiner, 16 D-linked, 40 introducing exclamative, 16 introducing relative, 16 not intrinsecally interrogative, 68 variable, 63 Wh–Criterion, 39 wh–phrase, 19, 22, 24, 38, 41, 43 word order change, 276 Zernez (Grisons), 315 Zoldo Alto (Veneto), 77