Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials Edited by Myer Kutz Myer Kutz Associates, Inc Delmar, New York Copyright © 2005 by William Andrew, Inc No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher Cover art © 2005 by Brent Beckley / William Andrew, Inc ISBN: 0-8155-1500-6 (William Andrew, Inc.) Library or Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005005496 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of environmental degradation of materials / edited by Myer Kutz p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8155-1500-6 (0-8155) Materials—Effect of environment on—Handbooks, manuals, etc I Kutz, Myer TA418.7.H354 2005 620.1Ј122—dc22 2005005496 Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper 10 Published by: William Andrew Publishing 13 Eaton Avenue Norwich, NY 13815 1-800-932-7045 www.williamandrew.com NOTICE To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information This book is intended for informational purposes only Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use by the Publisher Final determination of the suitability of any information or product for any use, and the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user Anyone intending to rely upon any recommendation of materials or procedures mentioned in this publication should be independently satisfied as to such suitability, and must meet all applicable safety and health standards For my lifelong friendships, none the worse for wear PREFACE The idea for the Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials originated several years ago when Bill Woishnis, the founder of William Andrew Publishing, and I met at my upstate New York office to discuss materials information needs at the practitioner level, an area that Bill and I had been involved in for some time Several handbooks that I had already published or was then working on dealt entirely with materials or had substantial numbers of chapters devoted to materials Bill and his partner, Chris Forbes, were embarking on a new electronic publishing venture, Knovel Corporation, that would deliver technical information, much of it on materials, to engineers’ desktops We thought that a handbook that dealt with the harm that environmental factors could cause to a wide range of engineering materials would be useful to practitioners, and that my expertise at developing handbooks could be combined successfully with his companies’ capabilities for delivering information in print and electronically The aim of this handbook is to present practical aspects of environmental degradation of materials (which I shall call “EDM” here): what causes EDM; how to detect and measure it; how to control it— what remediation strategies might be employed to retard damage caused by EDM; and how to possibly even prevent it Because an engineer, no matter the industry he or she is employed in, may have to work with multiple materials, including metals, plastics, composites (such as reinforced concrete), even textiles and wood, it is useful to know how many different kinds of industrial materials degrade environmentally, what the principal environmental agents of degradation are for each class of materials, and the degradation control and prevention strategies and techniques that are most successful for each class of materials The handbook deals with a broad range of degradation media and environmental conditions, including water and chemicals, weather, sunlight and other types of radiation, and extreme heat generated by explosion and fire The handbook has a design orientation I want the handbook to be useful to people with questions such as these: I’m designing a structure, which will have to operate under adverse environmental conditions What materials should I specify? How can I protect the surface of a product from degrading in the environment in which consumers will use the product? What protective measures can I apply to structural materials if they are subjected to a potentially catastrophic attack by intense heat? The handbook has a practical, not a theoretical, orientation A substantial portion includes chapters on preventive and remedial aspects of industrial and commercial applications where EDM can have major and, in some cases, even catastrophic consequences I want this handbook to serve as a source of practical advice to the reader I would like the handbook to be the first information resource a practicing engineer reaches for when faced with a new problem or opportunity—a place to turn to even before turning to other print sources, including officially sanctioned ones, or to Internet search engines So the handbook is more than a voluminous reference or collection of background readings In each chapter, the reader should feel that he or she is in the hands of an experienced consultant who is providing sensible engineering-design-oriented advice that can lead to beneficial action and results But why develop such a handbook? The data in a single handbook of the scope outlined above can be indicative only, not comprehensive After all, this handbook cannot purport to cover any of the subjects it addresses in anywhere near the detail that an information resource devoted to a single subject can Moreover, no information resource—I mean no handbook, no shelf of books, not even a web site or an Internet portal or search engine (not yet, at least!)—can offer an engineer, designer, or materials scientist complete assurance that he or she will, by consulting such a resource, gain from it all the knowledge necessary to incorporate into the design of a part, component, product, machine, assembly, or structure measures that will prevent its constituent materials from degrading to the point of failure or collapse when confronted by adverse environmental conditions, whether anticipated, such as weathering, or unexpectedly severe, such as the heat generated by a fire resulting from an explosion Nevertheless, when a practitioner is considering how to deal with any aspect of EDM, whether in the design, control, prevention, inspection, or remedia- vii viii PREFACE tion phase, he or she has to start somewhere The classic first step, which I have confirmed in surveys and focus groups of engineering professionals, was, in the pre-Internet era, either to ask a colleague (usually, the first choice), open a filing cabinet to look for reports or articles that might have been clipped and saved, scan the titles on one’s own bookshelves or, when all else had failed, go to an engineering library, where one would hope to find more information sources than in one’s own office, sometimes with the help of a good reference librarian To be sure, there are numerous references that deal with separate aspects of EDM Corrosion, for example, is a topic that has been covered in great detail in voluminous references, from the points of view of materials themselves, of corroding media, and of testing and evaluation in various industries Professional societies—NACE, ASM International, and ASTM—have devoted great energy to developing and disseminating information about corrosion The topic of environmental degradation of plastics, to take another example, has been covered in other reference books, albeit to a lesser extent So there are many print references where a practitioner can begin the study of many individual topics within the subject of EDM Of course, this is the Internet era Many, if not most, practitioners now begin the search for EDM information by typing words or phrases into a search engine Such activity, if the search has been done properly (a big if, just ask any reference librarian) will yield whatever the search engines have indexed, which, of course, may or may not be information useful to the particular situation And a search engine will not connect practitioners and students to the content of valuable engineering references, unless one has access to web sites where such references are offered in full text Moreover, engineers, designers, and materials scientists also practice in an era of innovative materials selection and substitution that enable them to develop new versions of products, machines, or assemblies that are cheaper and more efficient than older versions made with more expensive, harder to form, and heavier materials There can be competition for the attention of practitioners For example, while steel may still account for slightly more than half of the material in an automobile, the rest is made from a wide variety of metallic and non-metallic materials, and the competition among suppliers of these nonferrous materials for inclusion by automobile manufacturers is, to judge by the wars of words waged by materials trade associations, intense So here is the situation with regard to EDM knowledge and information that practitioners find themselves in: they must have access to information that covers numerous materials, as well as numerous degradation media and environments, but it has not been easy to find information of such broad scope in a single, easily accessible resource What I have sought to with this handbook is to deal with the EDM knowledge and information situation by including enough information about a broad range of subjects that deal with multiple aspects of EDM so that the handbook will be positioned at the hub of an information wheel, if you will, with the rim of the wheel divided into segments, each of which includes the wealth of information that exists for each of the topics within the subject of materials’ environmental degradation Each individual chapter in the handbook is intended to point readers to a web of information sources dealing with the subjects that the chapter addresses Furthermore, each chapter, where appropriate, is intended to provide enough analytical techniques and data so that the reader can employ a preliminary approach to solving problems The idea, then, is for the handbook to be the place for practitioners, as well as advanced students, to turn to when beginning to look for answers to questions in a way that may enable them to select a material, substitute one material or another, or employ a protection technique or mechanism that will save money, energy, or time I have asked contributors to write, to the extent their backgrounds and capabilities make possible, in a style that will reflect practical discussion informed by real-world experience I would like readers to feel that they are in the presence of experienced teachers and consultants who know about the multiplicity of technical and societal issues that impinge on any topic within the subject of environmental degradation of materials At the same time, the level is such that students and recent graduates can find the handbook as accessible as experienced engineers I have gathered together contributors from a wide range of locations and organizations While most of the contributors are from North America, there are two from India, one from Hong Kong, two from Russia (who collaborated on a chapter), and one from Sweden Personnel from the Royal Thai Navy contributed to the chapter on oil tankers Sixteen chapters are by academic authors; 11 are by authors who work in industry, are at research organizations, or are consultants The handbook is divided into six parts Part I, which deals with an assessment of the economic cost PREFACE of environmental degradation of materials, has just one chapter, a recapitulation of the work done by a team including Mike Brongers and Gerhardus Koch, both at CC Technologies, a corrosion consultancy in Dublin, Ohio Part II contains three chapters on failure analysis and measurement, by K.E Perumal, a consultant in Mumbai, India, Sean Brossia, who works on corrosion at the Southwest Research Institute in Can Antonio, Texas, and Jim Harvey, a plastics consultant in Corvalis, Oregon Part III deals with several different types of degradation Professors Raymond Buchanan and E.E Stansbury of the University of Tennessee and A.S Khanna of the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay cover metallic corrosion Jim Harvey, in his second chapter in the handbook, treats polymer aging Neal Berke, who works at WR Grace in Cambridge, Massachusetts, writes about the environmental degradation of reinforced concrete Professor J.D Gu of the University of Hong Kong deals with biodegration Part III concludes with a chapter on material flammability by Marc Janssens, also at Southwest Research Institute In Part IV, the handbook moves on to protective measures, starting with a chapter on cathodic protection by Prof Richard Evitts of the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, Canada In addition to metals, Part IV deals with polymers, textiles, and wood Professors Gennadi Zaikov and S.M Lomakin of the Institute of Biochemical Physics in Moscow cover polymeric flame retardants Hechmi Hamouda, at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina, writes about thermal protective clothing The contributors of the two chapters on wood and measures that can be taken to protect it are from the Pacific Northwest—Phil Evans and his colleagues, Brian Matthews and Jahangir Chowdhury, are at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver and Jeff Morrell is at Oregon State in Corvalis Protection issues are also the subjects of Part V, which is called Surface Engineering and deals with coatings Gary Halada and Clive Clayton, professors at SUNY in Stony Brook, set the stage for this section of the handbook with a chapter on the intersection of design, manufacturing, and surface engineering Professor Tom Schuman at the University of Missouri—Rolla, continues with a discussion of protective coatings for aluminum alloys Professor Rudy Buchheit, at the Ohio State University in Columbus, ix writes about anti-corrosion paints, and Mark Nichols, at Ford Motor Company in Dearborn, Michigan, writes about paint weathering tests, a topic of great interest to auto makers Mitch Dorfman, who works at Sulzer Metco in Westbury, Long Island, covers thermal spray coatings Professor “Vipu” Vipulanandan, with his colleague, J Liu, deals with concrete surface coatings issues Ray Taylor of the University of Virginia closes Part V with a discussion of coatings defects The handbook concludes with five chapters that cover industrial applications with, collectively, a wide variety of materials The chapters are meant to illustrate in a hands-on way points made more generally elsewhere in the handbook The first of these chapters, on degradation of spacecraft materials, comes from a Goddard Research Center group, including Bruce Banks, Joyce Dever, Kim de Groh, and Sharon Miller Branko Popov of the University of South Caroline in Columbia wrote the next chapter, which deals with metals, and is on cathodic protection for pipelines The next chapter is also on metals David Olson, a professor at the Colorado School of Mines in Golden headed a team, including George Wang of Mines, John Spencer of the American Bureau of Shipping, and Sittha Saidararamoot and Brajendra Mishra of the Royal Thai Navy, that provides practical insight into the real-world problem of tanker corrosion Mikael Hedenqvist of Institutionen för Polymerteknologi, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan in Stockholm deals with polymers in his chapter on barrier packaging materials used in consumer products Steve Tait, an independent consultant in Madison, Wisconsin, closes the handbook with a chapter on preventing and controlling corrosion in chemical processing equipment My undying thanks to all of the contributors: I salute their professionalism and perseverance I know how difficult it is to fit a writing project into a busy schedule Chapters like those in this handbook not get written in an evening or in a few hours snatched from a weekend afternoon Thanks also to Millicent Treloar, the acquisitions editor at William Andrew Publishing And, of course, many thanks to my wife Arlene, who successfully cushions each day, no matter how frustrating it’s been Myer Kutz Delmar, New York CONTRIBUTORS Stephen Ayer Forintek Canada Corporation Vancouver, Canada Richard W Evitts University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Canada Bruce Banks NASA Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Kim de Groh NASA Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Neal Berke WR Grace Construction Products Cambridge, Massachusetts J D Gu The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China Michiel Brongers CC Technologies Dublin, Ohio Gary Halada State University of New York Stony Brook, New York Sean Brossia Southwest Research Institute San Antonio, Texas Hechmi Hamouda North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina Raymond A Buchanan University of Tennessee Knoxville, Tennessee James A Harvey Under the Bridge Consulting Corvallis, Oregon Rudolph G Buchheit The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Mikael S Hedenqvist Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden Jahangir Chowdhury University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada Marc Janssens Southwest Research Institute San Antonio, Texas Clive Clayton State University of New York Stony Brook, New York Yutaka Kataoka Tsukuba Norin Ibaraki, Japan Joyce Dever NASA Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Anand Sawroop Khanna Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Mitchell R Dorfman Sulzer Metco, Inc Westbury, New York Makoto Kiguchi Tsukuba Norin Ibaraki, Japan Philip D Evans University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada Gerhardus Koch CC Technologies Dublin, Ohio xi xii CONTRIBUTORS Swaminatha P Kumaraguru University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina Karl Schmalzl University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada J Liu University of Houston Houston, Texas Thomas Schuman University of Missouri—Rolla Rolla, Missouri S M Lomakin Institute of Biochemical Physics Moscow, Russia John S Spencer American Bureau of Shipping Houston, Texas Brian Matthews University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada E E Stansbury University of Tennessee Knoxville, Tennessee Sharon Miller NASA Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio William Stephen Tait Pair O Docs Professionals L.L.C Madison, Wisconsin Brajendra Mishra Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colorado S Ray Taylor University of Mississippi Medical Center Jackson, Mississippi Jeff Morrell Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Neil Thompson CC Technologies Dublin, Ohio Mark Nichols Ford Motor Company Dearborn, Michigan Swieng Thuanboon Royal Thai Navy David L Olson Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colorado Joseph Payer Case Western Reserve University Cleveland, Ohio K E Perumal Corrosion and Metallurgical Consultancy Centre Mumbai, India Branko Popov University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina Sittha Saidarasamoot Royal Thai Navy Cumaraswamy Vipulanandan University of Houston Houston, Texas Paul Virmani Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center McLean, Virginia Ge Wang American Bureau of Shipping Houston, Texas Gennadii E Zaikov Institute of Biochemical Physics Moscow, Russia Index Terms Links logarithmic low-temperature measurement techniques for microbial parabolic pure metals and vs sulfidation thick layer thin layer See also Corrosion Oxidation kinetics Oxidation resistance, thermal spraying applications and Oxide dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys Oxide scale spallation Oxides chemical process equipment corrosion and n-type p-type Oxine copper (copper-8-quinolinolate) Oxygen food packagings and with sulfur dioxide, ternary alloy oxidation and wood protection and Oxygen tracer technique Ozawa-Flynn-Wall method 106 107 108 115 108 109 110 185 186 187 188 189 191 192 121 122 117 190 108 118 119 120 134 135 136 106 108 115 116 106 107 108 109 117 118 415 132 145 565 112 112 313 561 141 306 113 72 73 P p-type oxides Package boiler tubes, failure analysis and Packaging, barrier materials for Paints composite corrosion-resistant characteristics/uses of chemical process equipment and degradation of industrial applications and tanker protection and weathering tests for white thermal control See also Coatings Paper industry cost of corrosion and thermal spray coatings and 112 42 547-563 387-404 332 333 334 373 374 375 376 376 377 378 379 380 381 381 382 383 384 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 482 486 488 16 17 18 19 20 367-385 372 576 538 421 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Paper, physical aging and Parabolic oxidation Passivation Passive corrosion rates PBBEs (polybrominated biphenyl ethers) PBBs (polybrominated biphenyls) regulatory controls and PBDDs (polybrominated dibenzodioxins) PBDFs (polybrominated dibenzofurans) PBDPO flame retardants PBI (polybenzimidazole) PBO (polyphenylene-benzobisozazole) PBR (Pilling Bedworth Ratio) PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) PE (polyethylene) biodeterioration of packaging materials and cross-linked PeBDPO (pentabromodiphenyl oxide) PEGs (polyethylene glycols) PEI (polyether imide) PEN bottles Penetrating finishes for wood Penetration, wood protection and Pennes burn model Pentabromodiphenyl oxide (PeBDPO) Pentachlorophenol PET bottles Petrochemical industry cost of corrosion and oxidation and Petrochemical plant failure analysis case studies Petroleum refining cost of corrosion and pH of concrete laboratory tests and of soil tanker corrosion and Pharmaceutical industry cost of corrosion and oxidation and Phase stability diagrams PHE (plate-type heat exchanger), failure analysis case study and Phenolic resins Pholads, wood degradation and Phosphate surface treatments Phosphorous-containing flame retardants 157 108 90 91 92 245 246 247 245 246 247 248 261 263 58 245 244 257 244 244 249 263 145 246 247 248 554 556 193 553 248 315 72 552 287 308 272 248 312 313 554 555 556 557 17 18 19 35 36 37 38 41 42 18 19 152 16 132 152 16 18 165 49 509 534 16 17 132 137 38 375 305 331 219 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 39 40 Index Terms Links Photodegradation Photothermodegradation Phthalate acids Phthalate esters Physical aging of plastics role of water in Physical vapor deposition (PVD) PI (polyimide) Pickling Pigments, in coatings/paints corrosion inhibiting Pilling Bedworth Ratio (PBR) Pinholes concrete coatings and Pipelines buried, coatings and cathodic protection of impressed cathodic protection and monitoring methods for ground bed spacing and hot water, tuberculation in microbial corrosion and 65 65 195 195 154 155 156 160 161 162 157 158 159 189 190 158 161 335 263 350 369 372 145 171 369 424 428 383 503-521 237 511 238 239 240 241 185 186 187 188 191 192 573 509 protection of, soil resistance and stray current corrosion and Pitting corrosion chemical process equipment and concrete and cyclic-anodic polarization behavior and tankers and Plasma densification (thermal spraying) Plasma thermal spraying Plastic deformation Plasticizers, biodeterioration and Plastics chemical/physical aging of corrosion costs and lifetime predictions of 508 241 42 47 569 570 571 167 168 169 406 410 153 154 155 156 157 159 160 161 162 163 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 531 411 334 34 195 65 77 packaging materials and release coatings and as waste material, degrading Plastisols Plate-plate (PP) testing geometry 170 101 547-563 421 65 374 69 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Plate-type heat exchanger (PHE), failure analysis case study and PLC (polymer liquid crystal), creep behavior and PLD (pulsed laser deposition) Polarity, barrier properties and Polarization polarization curves and Pollution coating degradation and ships/tanks and wood weathering and See also Environment Poly(ethyl acrylates), physical aging and Poly(ethyl methacrylates), physical aging and Polyamide 11, physical aging and Polybenzimidazole (PBI) Polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBBEs) Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) regulatory controls and Polybrominated dibenzodioxins (PBDDs) Polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDFs) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Polyester resins Polyether imide (PEI) Polyethylene (PE) biodeterioration of packaging materials and cross-linked Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) Polyimide (PI) Polyimide gas separation membranes, physical aging and Polyimide Kapton® Polyimides, biodeterioration of Polyisocyanurate foam, physical aging and Polymer liquid crystal (PLC), creep behavior and Polymer-modified asphalt, master curves and Polymeric wastes, nonisothermal kinetic testing and Polymers atomic oxygen exposure and mitigation techniques for barrier packaging materials and biodeterioration of concrete coatings and corrosion costs and fillers/blends and flame retardancy and ionizing radiation and 38 74 335 548 549 550 59 89 90 91 92 93 97 98 99 94 95 96 100 101 102 96 97 98 99 245 246 247 247 248 389 527 541 281 157 157 158 261 263 245 244 257 244 244 246 372 72 193 553 315 263 159 470 482 192 193 194 476 477 193 194 555 556 195 158 74 68 72 470 475 547-563 192 424 554 243-259 485 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 195 248 Index Terms Links material flammability and MISSE PEACE experiment and space radiation and, mitigation techniques for thermal decomposition of thermal spraying and thermal variations and ultraviolet radiation and Polyolefins, environmental stress cracking and Polyphenylene ether (PPE) composites, physical aging and Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) thermal decomposition testing and Polyphenylene-benzobisozazole (PBO) Polypropylene, thermogravimetric analysis and Polystyrene, physical aging and Polysulfone, mechanical testing and Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Polyurethane foam, physical aging and Polyurethanes Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), physical aging and Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), physical aging and Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), physical aging and Pore space Ports, cost of corrosion and Potential criteria, cathodic protection and Potential surveys, for pipelines Potentiodynamic polarization Potentiostatic polarization Potentiostats Pourbaix diagrams cathodic protection and Powder coatings Powder thermal spraying Power cables, spacecraft and Power plants, oxidation and PP (plate-plate) testing geometry PPE (polyphenylene ether) composites, physical aging and PPS (polyphenylene sulfide) thermal decomposition testing and Premature failures Preservatives, wood treatments and Pressure processes (wood protection) Pressure vessels Pressure, laboratory tests and Prevention See also Coatings Primers evaluating performance of Printing industry, thermal spray coatings and 207-225 473 487 208 411 487 479 154 157 263 73 263 72 157 74 263 486 158 375 155 156 158 376 12 18 507 511 59 58 56 87 88 89 90 91 312 313 314 315 21 227-317 565-581 358 359 360 230 360 406 408 493 132 149 69 157 263 73 27 311 310 493 49 361 421 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 361 92 Index Terms Links Production, cost of corrosion and Proof testing, for coatings Protective coatings See Coatings Protective measures See also Coatings PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) Pulp industry, cost of corrosion and Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) Pure metals See Noble metals PVC (polyvinyl chloride), physical aging and PVD (physical vapor deposition) PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride), physical aging and PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone), physical aging and Pyrocal sensor Pyrolysis computer modeling and flame retardants and Pyroman System 15 18 20 380 227-317 565-581 263 486 16 17 18 19 36 37 38 12 14 18 467 479 20 335 155 335 156 158 269 223 244 267 R Radiant coils, failure analysis case study and Radiant Panel System Radiant Protective Performance (RPP) Radioactivity damage Radiolysis Railroads, cost of corrosion and Ram atomic oxygen Raman spectroscopy Rare earth-based conversion coating Rare earth elements, improved oxidation behavior and RE (reference electrode) Reaction order Reaction to fire See Material flammability Rebar coatings, concrete and Red cedar, heat release rates and Redox potential, pipelines and Reference electrode (RE) Reformer tubes, failure analysis case study Regulatory controls fire safety code testing flame retardants and See also Standards Reinforced concrete chloride ingress and environmental degradation of 35 267 266 326 326 327 357 128 56 69 171 221 509 56 32 33 34 35 210 211 212 213 214 165 166 167 168 169 170 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 256 177 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links protection systems for Release coatings Reliability Research and development material flammability testing and thermal protective clothing and Resins Resistance calculations, galvanic cathodic protection and Restoration, thermal spray coatings and Retention, wood protection and Reversible electrical work Rigid thermoplastic polyurethane (RTPU) materials, environmental stress cracking and Rinsing, metal surface pretreatment and Rotating airfoils, industrial gas turbines and RPP (Radiant Protective Performance) RTPU (rigid thermoplastic polyurethane) materials, environmental stress cracking and Rubber aging and release coatings and Rueping process (wood protection) Rutile 169 170 171 172 215 216 217 373 374 375 421 321 214 261 372 234 417 308 82 154 351 416 266 154 162 421 311 120 S S13G/LO paint Sacrificial anodes, corrosion costs and Sacrificial cathodic protection choosing/designing SAE standards metal alloy decontamination and weathering/appearance tests and Salt, wood degradation and SAMPE (Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering) Saturated calomel electrode (SCE) Scale spallation Scales multi-component alloys and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive analysis by X-rays (SEM/EDAX) Scanning optical microscopy Scanning reference electrode techniques (SRET) Scanning vibrating electrode techniques (SVET) SCE (saturated calomel electrode) 482 486 370 504 513 514 515 83 101 110 111 112 125 126 127 110 326 349 399 300 76 56 145 328 326 354 354 56 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 83 101 128 376 Index Terms Links SCF (supercritical fluid) treatments, for wood Scrap steel, as anode material Sealers, for concrete Sealing Second-order reactions Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) Self-assembled, nano-phase particle (SNAP) coatings Self-fluxing alloys/blends Self-healing coatings SEM (scanning electron microscopy) SEM/EDAX (scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive analysis by X-rays) Sensing devices, skin burns and SET (stored energy test) Sewer systems, cost of corrosion and Shawbury-Wallace relaxometer SHE (standard hydrogen electrode) Shipping industry cost of corrosion and standards and Ships beneath deck corrosion and grooving corrosion and microbial-induced corrosion and wood protection and Shipworms, wood degradation and Shroud casings, IGTs and SHTs (single-hull tankers) structural integrity risk and Side shell, corrosion and Silicon as alloying element aluminum alloys and Silicones, atomic oxygen and Silver corrosion Silver-silver chloride electrode (SSE) SIMS (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) Simulated service exposure testing, for coatings Single-hull tankers (SHTs) structural integrity risk and Sintering (thermal spraying) SiOx coating Site visits Skin burns evaluating sensing devices and Sliding wear, thermal spray coatings and Smoke, material flammability and 311 237 169 354 69 70 110 113 327 337 410 334 369 110 326 328 268 267 13 18 71 83 14 18 540 533 531 531 307 316 305 416 527 528 529 537 532 122 125 346 474 477 87 56 110 113 327 528 529 213 222 378 527 537 411 488 28 271 268 419 207 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Smut SNAP (self-assembled, nano-phase particle) coatings Soaking (wood protection) Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE) Soft rot fungi, wood degradation and Soil box method, for soil resistance measurement Soil pH Soil resistance cathodic protection and Solar flare x-ray radiation Solar proton events (SPEs) Solar radiation wood coatings and wood weathering and Solar ultraviolet radiation, spacecraft materials degradation and Solarization SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) Solvent washing Solventborne primers Spacecraft materials, degradation of interactions with atomic oxygen space radiation and spacecraft contamination and Specific Technology Groups (STGs) Spectral power distribution SPEs (solar proton events) Spray drying (thermal spraying) SRET (scanning reference electrode techniques) SSE (silver-silver chloride electrode) Stain fungi, wood degradation and Stainless steel concrete and corrosion-resistant alloys and failure analysis and immersion tests and oxidation resistance of Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) Standards cabinet tests and concrete coating bonding tests and concrete coating pinhole tests and electrochemical tests and immersion tests and laboratory testing and metal alloy decontamination and shipping industry and 350 337 308 76 303 508 509 233 235 508 483 483 287 277 479 480 481 482 470 471 472 473 474 475 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 477 478 479 394 395 40 41 42 51 52 480 541 349 359 465-501 393 483 411 354 56 302 27 171 39 49 129 83 54 426 428 428 433 57 50 49 349 540 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 50 Index Terms Links weathering/appearance tests and wood protection and Stationary airfoils, IGTs and Stern-Geary method STGs (Specific Technology Groups) Stiff molecules, barrier properties and Stiffeners of bulkheads, corrosion and Stoll Curve burn model Stored energy test (SET) Strain, measuring in plastics Stray current corrosion Stress measuring in plastics thermal cycling and Stress corrosion cracking Styrene, migration of Sulfate-reducing bacteria Sulfidation of alloys high-temperature vs oxidation Sulfur dioxide, ternary alloy oxidation and Sulfur dioxide-containing atmospheres, scaling of alloys and Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, pipelines and Sulfur, metal dusting and Sulfuric acid plant case study Superalloys Supercritical fluid (SCF) treatments, for wood Surface engineering design considerations and technologies for advantages/disadvantages of See also Coatings; Protective measures SVET (scanning vibrating electrode techniques) Synchrotron techniques 399 311 416 100 552 532 271 267 66 241 66 145 146 47 571 147 148 76 509 136 31 134 135 136 139 140 141 322 323 324 325 326 339 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 141 138 510 149 38 131 311 338 354 327 329 T Tafel extrapolation Tafel polarization behavior Tankers, corrosion and measuring/monitoring preventing/mitigating protection costs and structural integrity risk types of corrosion Tantalum, oxidation and 99 93 94 98 523-545 538 542 538 539 540 525 526 527 536 537 538 529 530 531 118 119 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 541 Index Terms Links TB (torsion bar) testing geometry TBCs (thermal barrier coatings) Technora® Tedlar®, ultraviolet radiation and TEF (toxicity equivalence factor) Teflon® Teflon® FEP impact craters and thermal and radiation effects on ultraviolet radiation and Telecommunications, cost of corrosion and Temperature coating degradation and food packagings and laboratory tests and spacecraft materials degradation and tanker degradation and wood protection and TEQs (Toxicity Equivalents) Termites, wood degradation and Test cycles, for accelerated weathering Testing cabinet chemical process equipment and coatings concrete coatings electrochemical failure analysis and hot corrosion and immersion material flammability and fire safety code testing research and development testing plastics post-exposure, for coatings thermal protective clothing See also Evaluating Testing geometries Textile products, thermal protection and Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) Thermal cycling spacecraft materials degradation and 69 413 263 481 250 252 263 486 493 488 489 480 481 490 491 13 18 377 388 488 489 490 254 255 256 398 399 400 401 47-63 387-404 560 49 487 491 533 306 253 303 53 54 55 577 578 579 580 424 425 426 427 430 431 432 433 55 56 57 61 62 387-404 428 429 58 59 60 29 144 48 49 50 51 52 53 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 210 211 212 213 214 214 215 216 217 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 266 267 268 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 488 489 490 491 402 265 68 413 487 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links stresses and Thermal decomposition testing Thermal protective clothing (TPC) Thermal Protective Performance (TPP) Thermal spray coatings selection considerations and Thermal spray wires Thermal spraying, industrial applications and Thermal treatments, for wood Thermobalance Thermochemical stability diagrams Thermocouple-type sensors Thermogage™ Thermogravimetric analysis Thermoset polyurethanes Thick layer oxidation Thin layer oxidation Throwing power Time-temperature superimposition (TTS) Titanium alloys, corrosion-resistant alloys and Titanium, oxidation and Topcoatings Torsion bar (TB) testing geometry Torvi burn model Toxic products chromates and dioxins and material flammability and organic flame retardants and PBDPO flame retardants and VOC emissions and Toxicity equivalence factor (TEF) Toxicity Equivalents (TEQs) TPC (thermal protective clothing) TPP (Thermal Protective Performance) Traction coatings Transition ducts, industrial gas turbines and Transportation, cost of corrosion and Trapped radiation belts Tribological damage TTS (time-temperature superimposition) Tuberculation, in hot water pipelines 145 146 147 71 72 73 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 416 417 117 118 252 253 265 269 334 405-422 148 421 411 412 413 414 415 418 419 420 421 15 116 309 110 137 270 270 72 109 362 117 106 108 240 66 118 119 120 348 361 362 363 246 249 250 251 254 255 207 213 222 246 247 248 332 370 384 69 273 384 244 249 250 252 253 254 255 256 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 265 269 421 415 13 483 324 66 573 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 18 Index Terms Links Two-stage dip diffusion (wood protection) 309 U Uhlig report/method Ultraviolet light See UV light Under deposit corrosion Under-film corrosion Undercoating corrosion Unicoatings UNS N08811 (high-nickel alloy) UNS N10276 (nickel-base alloy) Utilities, cost of corrosion and UV absorbers (UVAs) barrier packaging materials and coating degradation and coating weatherability and wood protection and UV/humidity damage UV impingement, composite paint coatings and UV light barrier packaging materials and coating degradation and spacecraft materials degradation and wood weathering and UVAs See UV absorbers 44 451 377 363 35 36 12 18 559 388 403 292 324 333 559 387 478 479 480 481 278 279 280 281 V Vacancies, in oxides Vacuum plasma spray (VPS) Vacuum processes (wood protection) Vacuum UV (VUV) Vapor deposited aluminum (VDA) Vapor phase treatments, for wood Varied heating rate VDA (vapor deposited aluminum) Vickers micro-indentation Vinyl butyral Vinyl resins Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) composite paint coatings and waterborne paints and Volume defects VPS (vacuum plasma spray) VUV (vacuum UV) 37 38 111 410 310 479 481 487 311 73 487 75 374 374 384 332 370 111 112 410 479 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 481 482 Index Terms Links W Wagner Hauffe rules Wagner’s theory of thick layer oxidation Wash primer, vinyl butyral as Wasps, wood degradation and Wastage allowances Wastewater industry, concrete coatings and Water coating degradation and food packagings and ingress of into coatings plastics aging and potable, cost of corrosion and wood protection and wood weathering and Water-cooled thermal sensors Water dispersed coatings Water-soluble primers Water uptake Waterborne preservatives Waterways, cost of corrosion and WE (working electrode) Wear, thermal spray coatings and Weathering coatings/paints and wood and Wenner four pin method, for soil resistance measurement Whipple shield White paint thermal control coatings White rot fungi, wood degradation and Wire arc thermal spraying Wire thermal spraying Wood charring of, computer modeling and degradation of 112 117 374 305 541 542 543 544 418 419 420 421 422 377 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 486 488 302 303 304 290 291 292 423 388 560 449 456 161 13 18 307 280 270 360 360 376 313 12 18 56 417 277 508 494 482 302 406 410 406 408 277-317 223 299 300 301 307 308 288 289 305 costs and heartwood durability and modifying protection of against biological degradation future trends in photoprotection methods 305 307 315 287-317 306 293 287 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links short-term/long-term treatment methods weathering of painting/finishing and Wood cell lumen fill treatments Wood-plastic composites (WPCs), wood protection and Working electrode (WE) WPCs (wood-plastic composites), wood protection and 308 308 309 310 314 315 316 277 278 283 284 286 291 292 56 292 X X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Xenon arc light sources, for artificial accelerated weathering tests XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy) X-ray diffraction (XRD) 115 327 398 115 327 328 Y YB-71 paint 482 486 482 486 Z Z-93 paint thermal cycling and Zebra mussels Zero-order reactions Zinc anodes, vs magnesium anodes Zinc-rich paints (ZRPs) Zirconium, oxidation and Zone models ZRPs (zinc-rich paints) 488 184 69 235 370 118 223 370 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 119 311 312 313 279 280 281 282 285 286 287