E DITOR IN C HIEF J Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen James I McCord Professor of Theology and Science, Princeton Theological Seminary E DITORS Nancy R Howell Associate Professor of Theology and Philosophy of Religion, Saint Paul School of Theology Niels Henrik Gregersen Research Professor in Theology & Science, University of Aarhus Wesley J Wildman Associate Professor of Theology and Ethics, Boston University Ian Barbour Consulting Editor Carleton College Ryan Valentine Editorial Assistant Princeton Theological Seminary Encyclopedia of Science and Religion J Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen © 2003 by Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Macmillan Reference USA™ and Thomson Learning™ are trademarks used herein under license For more information contact Macmillan Reference USA 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor New York, NY 10010 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part 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listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions Macmillan Reference USA 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor New York, NY 10010 Macmillan Reference USA 27500 Drake Road Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Encyclopedia of science and religion / J Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen, editor in chief — 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-02-865704-7 (alk paper) — ISBN 0-02-865705-5 (v : alk paper) — ISBN 0-02-865706-3 (v : alk paper) Religion and science—Encyclopedias I Van Huyssteen, Wentzel BL240.3 E43 2003 291.1’75—dc21 2002152471 Printed in the United States of America 10 C ONTENTS Preface vii Introduction ix List of Articles xiii List of Contributors xxiii Synoptic Outline of Contents xxxiii E N C Y C L O P E D I A OF S C I E N C E A N D R E L I G I O N Annotated Bibliography 933 Index 943 —v— E DITORIAL AND P RODUCTION S TAFF Ray Abruzzi and Michael J McGandy Project Editors Deirdre Graves and Christine Slovey Contributing Editors Judith Culligan Copy Editor Elizabeth Merrick Proofreader Cynthia Crippen AEIOU, Inc Indexer Jennifer Wahi Art Director Argosy Compositor GGS Information Services Line Art Mary Beth Trimper Composition Management Evi Seoud Assistant Production Manager Rhonda Williams Buyer MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA Frank Menchacca Vice President Hélène Potter Director, New Product Development P REFACE The dialogue between science and religion is one of the most prominent and visible discourses of our time The complex but enduring relationship between the sciences and diverse world religions has now transformed itself into what some are calling a new scholarly field of science and religion This multifaceted conversation has developed into a sustained and dynamic discourse with direct implications for contemporary culture This discourse affects all religions, in both their intellectual and social dimensions It also analyzes, supports, and constrains the global impact of the sciences of our times The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion reflects the breathtaking scope and pluralistic character of this ongoing dialogue It is the most comprehensive work of its kind, and it is designed to be accessible to a wide readership from high school students to independent researchers and academics Anyone fascinated by the ever-evolving impact of the sciences on religious belief in a global context will find the Encyclopedia a rich resource, for the historical relationship between science and religion certainly ranges from harmony and mutual support to stormy periods of intense conflict In the last two decades public awareness of and interest in this complex and often contentious relationship between science and religion has reached an unprecedented level Courses in science and religion are now taught worldwide at a great number of educational institutions Centers for the study of science and religion are actively pursuing the challenges and complexities of this dialogue; local and international societies for science and religion have been, and are being, established There is also an exploding number of publications, journals, newsletters, and papers Most recently, the science and religion dialogue has established an impressive new presence on the Internet All of these issues, interests, and constituencies are reflected in the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion The challenging conversation between the sciences and religions is highlighted with entries focusing on issues that bear on topics such as behavioral studies and the human sciences; cognitive science and the neurosciences; computer science and information technology; physical sciences and cosmology; ecology; ethics and value theory; evolution; genetics; feminist and womanist issues; mathematics; methodology; medicine; philosophy; biology; paleontology and the anthropological sciences; and technology World religions as —vii— P REFACE varied as Baháhí, Buddhism, Chinese religions, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto are represented with individual entries or clusters of entries There are more than four hundred entries in the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, all arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference The entries range in length from several thousand words on broad topics, to a hundred words or so for key terms in the various sciences and religions The editors see this work primarily as a reflection on the most important issues in the contemporary dialogue between the sciences and religions A glance over the list of entries, however, indicates that the Encyclopedia also covers the critical history of the relationship between science and religion and offers historical biographies of a select number of important figures All entries guide readers to further sources of information and exhaustive cross-references quickly and easily lead to related topics The authority of the Encyclopedia is assured by the experts who have written the entries The authors have written so as to make this Encyclopedia accessible for students in general, for the public at large, and for scholars in a variety of disciplines In this way we have created a rich reference resource that is well suited to diverse library environments The frontmatter features a Synoptic Outline, covering the complete scope and every entry of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion The purpose of this Outline is to make the Encyclopedia even more accessible by grouping all entries into broad, topical categories Teachers and readers are offered an organized map of the whole field of science and religion In addition, a comprehensive Index provides readers with yet another means of access to the wealth of information contained in these two volumes, while an Annotated Bibliography of selected works introduces readers to those published works currently regarded as indispensable in the field of science and religion The editors would like to thank Ian Barbour, one of the most prominent scholars in the field, for graciously agreeing to act as a consultant at the initial planning phase of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion His advice was invaluable to us We also thank the expert staff at Macmillan Reference USA for their outstanding support throughout this project We extend our appreciation to the following persons at Macmillan: Elly Dickason, former publisher of Macmillan, for her initiative and encouragement at the beginning of this project; Michael McGandy, who was a pleasure to work with, and who guided us with unfailing professionalism and expertise; Hélène Potter, who oversaw the project with great vision, and was responsible in the end for pulling everything together; and Judy Culligan for all her hard work and a very professional level of copy editing Here at the Princeton Theological Seminary my assistant Ryan Valentine did an outstanding job He devoted a great deal of time developing the database that was critical to the beginning phase of this project and later assisted in the editing process He was also responsible for preparing the Synoptic Outline and checking all cross-references Taede Smedes did a first rate job of helping us put together the Annotated Bibliography The editors, finally, would like to express our deep gratitude to family members and loved ones who so consistently acknowledged and supported our work on this project J WENTZEL VREDE VAN HUYSSTEEN —viii— I NTRODUCTION The publication of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion is a significant milestone marking the maturation of the contemporary dialogue between the sciences and religions Not only does this Encyclopedia offer a massive amount of interdisciplinary and interreligious information, but it mirrors one of the most fascinating stories of our time: the emergence of an extensive international discussion among scientists of various specializations, philosophers of nearly all persuasions, and religious thinkers from all the major world religions Spectacular advances in the sciences no longer easily threaten religions around the world because the risks and devastating consequences of new technologies have problematized the formerly unquestioned ideal of scientific progress Scientific advances still challenge basic religious convictions, however, and the intellectual representatives of the world’s religious traditions grapple with scientific knowledge more effectively and pervasively than ever before, thanks to the science-religion dialogue Today sciences as varied as the neurosciences, ecology, and biotechnology raise questions about human beings and the future of our planetary home, perhaps especially for those who possess a sense of the divine Similarly, chaos theory, quantum mechanics, and the ever-deepening understanding of the role of chance in biological systems conspire to challenge the notions of ultimate reality and divine action espoused by religious traditions and sacred texts At the same time, partly because of the unwanted side effects of sciencedriven technologies, there is a growing conviction that science in itself may never yield an ultimately satisfying explanation of human life and the world we inhabit And yet the information about reality produced by the sciences is invaluable Perhaps we have two domains of meaning here, with science and religion each ruler of its own domain Or perhaps the structures and patterns of nature disclosed by the sciences connect with the more elusive yet existentially more immediate meaning typical of religious faith Even as the religions of the world grow more accepting of the sciences, at least some intellectuals are noting how scientific methods and aims can enhance and perhaps support religious faith Therefore, contrary to popular misconceptions, the relationship between the sciences and the various religions at the beginning of the twenty-first century is not about conflict or confrontation only Those who participate actively in this dialogue are often deeply committed, not only to a specific science, but also to specific religious beliefs Even scholars who are agnostic or atheistic are taking the interaction —ix— I NTRODUCTION among sciences and the religions seriously because this relationship involves two of the dominant cultural forces of our time Complicated and multilayered, the relationships among the various sciences and diverse world religions are not merely adversarial, nor simply a matter of neatly separable domains of discourse In the West the success and prestige of science has had a fundamental influence on the way that the voices of popular culture describe our world As a result, relationships among the religions and the sciences have often suffered from what some intellectuals have called the modernist dilemma, where the objective and universally true claims of science are often unfairly contrasted with subjective and irrational religious beliefs This has led to sharp distinctions between objective descriptions and subjective experiences, between scientific and symbolic uses of language, and between empirically justified scientific truths and privately held religious opinions The appeal of such stark oppositions, however, has waned Scientism is the term of approbation used for the attitude that takes for granted the alleged rational superiority of science and exclusive value of the scientific method for gaining knowledge The reductionist views that define scientism are now being attacked relentlessly by scholars who point out that both scientific and religious beliefs, in spite of important differences, are historically and culturally embedded and shaped by comprehensive worldviews The polarization between inappropriately reified and ahistorical notions of science and religion is collapsing and in its place is arising an appreciation for the integrity of diverse discourses and social activities, including those usually called the religions and the sciences At least as importantly, scholars are attempting to uncover the profound rational and historical linkages that connect, as well as individuate, the religions and the sciences These historical and philosophical exertions have shown not only that the great discoveries about the nature and history of the physical world have affected religious discourses in nearly all their manifestations, but also that the claims of the various world religions about our capacity to know, the ultimate meaning of the cosmos, and the place of human beings in an evolving universe often impact the way scientific inquiry is conducted In the contemporary discussion among the religions and the sciences, particularly as it has transpired in the West, the most influential attempt at representing the complex relationship between these two cultural forces has been Ian Barbour’s fourfold typology Barbour describes the different ways that the sciences have actually related and might possibly relate to the religions as conflict, dialogue, independence, and integration Many subsequent models for relating religion and science have built on the legacy of this pioneering analysis Even as contemporary factors from cultural pluralism to postmodern philosophy suggest other ways of relating the sciences to religion, Barbour’s typology remains applicable and instructive The literature today expresses an increasing awareness that the relations between science and religion can only be properly understood if the specific cultural, historical, and intellectual contexts have been taken into account The vast amount of information collected in this Encyclopedia of Science and Religion illustrates the richness and complexity of this interpretative task The growing conversation between science and religion that emerged with new vigor in the late twentieth century has a number of striking features First, though once considered an esoteric field, the study of the relationship between science and religion is no longer a highly specialized discourse, open only to the —x— I NTRODUCTION few intellectuals who are privy to the complexity of the issues involved The science and religion debate has become a public affair The active presence of the debate on the Internet, as well as an explosion of published newsletters, papers, books, and conferences, further enhances this high public profile Second, whereas there are new debates and ideas within science and religion, in many ways the dialogue extends familiar and longstanding debates known by different names: “faith and reason” or “faith and culture” (in the West) and “pramana theory” (in South Asian debates on valid sources of knowledge) Third, not only is the science and religion conversation alive and well in many cultures all over the world but, as this Encyclopedia clearly shows, a number of academic centers and scholarly associations now concentrate their considerable intellectual and financial resources on issues at the interface of science and religion The discussion among the sciences and the religions has also found a permanent place in schools, colleges, seminaries, and universities Courses in religion and science are now taught on all academic levels throughout the world, complemented by a number of high-profile endowed chairs in the field Finally, one of the most important milestones in this ever-growing field was the founding of the International Society of Science and Religion in August 2002 in Granada, Spain The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion is directed mainly at students and their teachers They will find all of the most important issues in this field addressed in an accessible and inclusive manner Outstanding experts from around the world have contributed to the Encyclopedia The comprehensive list of entries focuses on the principal sciences and the major scientific discoveries of our time and on all the challenging and controversial topics that have emerged from this context and have affected the world religions in different ways Both historical and contemporary issues in science and religion are treated under the headings of the major world religions The religions represented here include Buddhism, Baháhí, Chinese religions (Confucianism and Daoism), Christianity (Anglican, Evangelical, Lutheran, Orthodox, Pentecostalism, Radical Reformed, Reformed, Roman Catholic), Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto The various sciences represented in the entries of this Encyclopedia cover a wide spectrum of disciplines, such as behavioral studies and the human sciences; cognitive science and neuroscience; computer science and information technology; cosmology; ecology; evolutionary sciences; genetics; primatology; mathematics; medicine; the physical sciences (including chemistry and physics); and the life sciences (including biology, paleontology, and the anthropological sciences) There is also a series of entries on relevant disciplines within the humanities, including ethics and value theory; feminism; philosophy (including methodology, epistemology, philosophy of science, philosophy of religion); theology and religious thought; and technology There are interesting, if controversial, reasons why Christian theologians have often taken the lead in discussing the relationship of the sciences to the religions An unfortunate side effect of this leadership is that, at certain times and places in recent decades, the dialogue has seemed limited by the caricature that only Christianity fostered modern science But this version of events is historically inaccurate and deeply misleading The evidence is that all religious traditions and all forms of scientific work have something to gain as well as lose in the process of mutual interaction, and the historical record demonstrates profound and longstanding engagement between science and religion in all literate cultures Selecting entries —xi— I NTRODUCTION and authors to express this guiding conviction and to represent the truly global character of the dialogue has been one of the main goals of this Encyclopedia The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion highlights for our readers the dynamic and ongoing discussion among the religions and the sciences, and demonstrates that it is both possible and fruitful to bring together the spectacular success of science and the wisdom of religion in a constructive interchange In doing this, the difficult but exciting interdisciplinary conversation between science and religion moves forward to a more challenging phase of interreligious dialogue where religions could be in conversation with each other through their relationship to the sciences This may go beyond regular interfaith dialogue If this can be achieved successfully, the multileveled and comprehensive scope of this work will serve well the future of the science and religion interchange J WENTZEL VREDE VAN HUYSSTEEN NIELS HENRIK GREGERSEN NANCY R HOWELL WESLEY J WILDMAN —xii— L IST OF A RTICLES Abortion Ann Pederson William J Watson Astronomy George F R Ellis Astrophysics Adaptation Volker Loeschke George F R Ellis Atheism Aesthetics George Allan John Haught Atomism Age of the Universe William R Stoeger Dirk Evers Attractor Aggression Boje Katzenelson Wolfgang Achtner Augustine Algorithm William A Dembski Mathijs Lamberigts Automata, Cellular Algorithmic Complexity William A Dembski Thiemo Krink Autopoiesis Altruism Colin Grant Günter Thomas Averröes Animal Rights Andrew Linzey Muzaffar Iqbal Avicenna Anthropic Principle Michael A Corey Muzaffar Iqbal Axiology Anthropocentrism Roald E Kristiansen George Allan Baháhí Anthropology Paul K Wason Stephen R Friberg Beauty Anthropology of Religion Paul K Wason George Allan Behavioral Genetics Apologetics V Elving Anderson Audrey R Chapman Paul Allen Aristotle Behaviorism Edward Grant Art, Origins of Hans Schwarz Biblical Cosmology Paul K Wason Artificial Intelligence Norriss Hetherington Big Bang Theory Noreen L Herzfeld Artificial Life Mark Worthing Big Crunch Theory Claus Emmeche Mark Worthing —xiii— L IST OF A RTICLES Biological Diversity Christianity Holmes Rolston, III Biology Keith Ward Christianity, Anglican, Issues in Science and Religion Celia Deane-Drummond Biosemiotics Claus Emmeche Stephen Sykes Christianity, Evangelical, Issues in Science and Religion Alan G Padgett Biotechnology Ronald Cole-Turner Christianity, History of Science and Religion Black Hole Mark Worthing Edward B Davis Christianity, Lutheran, Issues in Science and Religion Bohr, Niels Henry J Folse, Jr Boundary Conditions Niels Henrik Gregersen Christianity, Orthodox, Issues in Science and Religion William A Dembski Buddhism Jensine Andresen Alexei Nesteruk Christianity, Pentacostalism, Issues in Science and Religion Buddhism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion Ronald Y Nakasone Buddhism, History of Science and Religion Amos Yong Paul Elbert Christianity, Radical Reformed, Issues in Science and Religion Christian Early Nancey Murphy Naoki Nabeshima Butterfly Effect Wolfgang Achtner Calvinism Christianity, Reformed, Issues in Science and Religion E David Willis E David Willis Cartesianism Anne A Davenport Christianity, Roman Catholic, Issues in Science and Religion George Coyne Catastrophism Arn O Gyldenholm Christology Hans Schwarz Causality, Primary and Secondary Mariano Artigas Clockwork Universe Howard J Van Till Causation Theo C Meyering Cloning Ronald Cole-Turner Chance Keith Ward Closed Universe Chaos, Quantum Wolfgang Achtner Jens Noeckel Chaos, Religious and Philosophical Aspects Denis Edwards Chaos Theory Wolfgang Achtner Taede A Smedes Chemistry David M Knight Chinese Religions and Science Hing Kau Yeung Chinese Religions, Confucianism and Science in China Hing Kau Yeung Mark Worthing Cognitive Fluidity Steven Mithen Coherentism F LeRon Shults Competition Arn O Gyldenholm Complementarity K Helmut Reich Complexity Niels Henrik Gregersen Consciousness Studies Joseph A Goguen Constructivism Günter Thomas Chinese Religions, Daoism and Science in China Jiang Sheng Chinese Religions, History of Science and Religion in China Contextualism Mikael Stenmark Contingency Hing Kau Yeung Keith Ward —xiv— L IST OF A RTICLES Convergence Disorder Simon Conway Morris Copenhagen Interpretation Dirk Evers Dissipative Structure John D Barrow Cosmological Argument William A Dembski Divine Action David Manley Cosmology Thomas F Tracy DNA Norriss Hetherington Cosmology, Physical Aspects R David Cole Double Agency Robert John Russell Cosmology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects Thomas F Tracy Downward Causation Norriss Hetherington Created Co-Creator Hubert Meisinger Creatio Continua Keith Ward Creatio Ex Nihilo Keith Ward Creation Keith Ward Creationism Howard J Van Till Creation Science Howard J Van Till Critical Realism Kees van Kooten Niekerk Culture, Origins of Paul K Wason Cybernetics Marion Grau Cyborg Anne Foerst Cyclical Universe Mark Worthing Theo C Meyering Dualism Charles Taliaferro Ecofeminism Anne Primavesi Ecology Holmes Rolston, III Ecology, Ethics of James A Nash Ecology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects Jay McDaniel Ecology, Science of Stephanie Kaza Economics Max L Stackhouse Ecotheology H Paul Santmire Einstein, Albert Max Jammer Embodiment Catherine Keller Emergence Philip Clayton Dao James Miller Empiricism Jerome A Stone Darwin, Charles John Hedley Brooke Death End of the World, Religious & Philosophical Aspects of Richard Landes Duane H Larson Deep Ecology Entropy Lawrence W Fagg Roald E Kristiansen Deism Epistemology Paul D Murray Philip Clayton Descartes, René EPR Paradox John D Barrow Anne A Davenport Design Eschatology William R Stoeger Anna Case-Winters Design Argument Eternity Luco J van den Brom Anna Case-Winters Determinism Ethnicity Barbara A Holmes Taede A Smedes Dharma Eugenics Abigail Rian Evans Harold Coward —xv— L IST OF A RTICLES Evil and Suffering Foundationalism Keith Ward Evolution F LeRon Shults Freedom Michael Ruse Evolutionary Algorithms Ted Peters Free Process Defense Gregory R Peterson Evolutionary Epistemology Thomas Jay Oord Free Will Defense Tomas Hancil Thomas Jay Oord Matthew Henry Evolutionary Ethics Jeffrey P Schloss Freud, Sigmund William W Meissner, S.J Evolutionary Psychology John A Teske Functionalism Evolution, Biocultural Michael Ruse Hubert Meisinger Fundamentalism Evolution, Biological Francisco J Ayala Martin E Marty Gaia Hypothesis Evolution, Human John Cobb Kenneth Mowbray Ian Tattersall Galileo Galilei Evolution, Theology of Gene Patenting John Haught Exobiology Steven J Dick Experience, Religious: Cognitive and Neurophysiological Aspects Andrew B Newberg Experience, Religious: Philosophical Aspects Matthew C Bagger Explanation William R Shea Karen Lebacqz Genesis Christopher B Kaiser Gene Therapy Brent Waters Genetically Modified Organisms Donna M McKenzie Genetic Defect Brent Waters Eberhard Herrmann Extraterrestrial Life Genetic Determinism Ted Peters Steven J Dick Faith Genetic Engineering Ronald Cole-Turner Eric O Springsted Genetics Fall Ted Peters Raymund Schwager Fallibilism Genetic Testing Brent Waters Mikael Stenmark Falsifiability Geocentrism Denis Edwards Mikael Stenmark Feminisms and Science Geometry, Modern: Theological Aspects Michael Heller Lisa L Stenmark Feminist Cosmology Geometry: Philosophical Aspects John C Puddefoot Ann Pederson Feminist Theology Global Warming Richard O Randolph Ann Pederson Field God Philip Clayton William R Stoeger Field Theories Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem W M Priestley William R Stoeger Fitness God, Existence of Philip L Quinn Volker Loeschke Forces of Nature God of the Gaps Ernest Simmons Howard J Van Till —xvi— L IST OF A RTICLES Gould, Stephen Jay Incarnation Michael Ruse John Haught Indeterminism Gradualism John D Barrow Volker Loeschke Infinity Grand Unified Theory Anne A Davenport William R Stoeger Inflationary Universe Theory Gravitation George F R Ellis George F R Ellis Information Greenhouse Effect John C Puddefoot Richard O Randolph Information Technology Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle John C Puddefoot John D Barrow Information Theory Hermeneutics in Science and Religion John C Puddefoot William J Grassie Intelligent Design Hierarchy Howard J Van Till Gregory R Peterson Islam Hinduism Osman Bakar Harold Coward Islam, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion Hinduism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion Bruno Guiderdoni Islam, History of Science and Religion Harold Coward Alnoor R Dhanani Hinduism, History of Science and Religion Judaism Klaus K Klostermaier Hava Tirosh-Samuelson Historical Criticism Judaism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion Claude Welch Holism Laurie Zoloth Christopher Southgate Judaism, History of Science and Religion, Medieval Period Holy Spirit Gad Freudenthal Hans Schwarz Judaism, History of Science and Religion, Modern Period Hope George Newlands Norbert M Samuelson Human Ecology Kant, Immanuel Susan Powers Bratton Frederick Gregory Human Genome Project Karma Ted Peters Harold Coward Humanism Kenosis Brad Allenby John Haught Human Nature, Physical Aspects Lamarckism Michael L Spezio Human Nature, Religious and Philosophical Aspects Jan-Olav Henriksen Hume, David David Raynor Hypothetical Realism Tomas Hancil Idealism Peter M J Hess Language Terrence W Deacon Laws of Nature Yuri V Balashov Level Theory Gregory R Peterson Liberation Arne Grøn Imagination John J Thatamanil Liberation Theology Robert Cummings Neville Imago Dei John W de Gruchy Life after Death Gregory R Peterson Immanence Jan Bremmer Life, Biological Aspects Holmes Rolston, III Gregory R Peterson —xvii— L IST OF A RTICLES Life, Origins of Mutation Kai Finster Life, Religious and Philosophical Aspects R David Cole Mystical Experience Jensine Andresen Holmes Rolston, III Life Sciences Mysticism Jensine Andresen Celia Deane-Drummond Locality Mystics Jensine Andresen John D Barrow Maimonides Myth Marcelo Gleiser David B Burrell Many-worlds Hypothesis Naturalism Willem B Drees W Michael Dickson Materialism Naturalistic Fallacy Ulrik B Nissen Max Jammer Mathematics Naturalized Epistemology Andy F Sanders W M Priestley Medical Ethics Natural Law Theory Ulrik B Nissen Alfred I Tauber Medicine Harold G Koenig Meditation Ernest Simmons Memes Mary Midgley Mendel, Gregor Richard C Weikart Metaphor Mary Gerhart Allan M Russell Metaphysics Jitse M van der Meer Millenialism Richard Landes Mind-body Theories Stephen Priest Mind-brain Interaction Stephen Priest Miracle William Lane Craig Missing Link Ian Tattersall Mitochondrial Eve Natural Theology Keith Ward Nature Ulrik B Nissen Nature versus Nurture Holmes Rolston, III Neo-Darwinism Volker Loeschke Neural Darwinism John A Teske Neurophysiology Warren S Brown Neuropsychology Warren S Brown Neurosciences Warren S Brown Neurotheology Palmyre M F Oomen New Physics William R Stoeger Newton, Isaac Stephen D Snobelen Nonfoundationalism F LeRon Shults Nuclear Energy Michael Ruse Models Richard O Randolph Omega Point Theory Lou Ann G Trost Modernity Mark Worthing Omnipotence Michael Welker Monism Luco J van den Brom Omnipresence Dennis Bielfeldt Monotheism Luco J van den Brom Omniscience Philip Clayton Morality Luco J van den Brom Ontological Argument Rodney L Petersen David Manley —xviii— L IST OF A RTICLES Ontology Postmodernism Dennis Bielfeldt Open Universe Graham Ward Postmodern Science F LeRon Shults Mark Worthing Order Pragmatism Eberhard Herrmann Jitse M van der Meer Paleoanthropology Prayer and Meditation Fraser Watts Ian Tattersall Paleontology Ian Tattersall Kenneth Mowbray Primatology Gregory R Peterson Process Thought Thomas Jay Oord Panentheism David H Nikkel Progress Michael Ruse Pantheism Nancy Frankenberry Providence Thomas F Tracy Paradigms Antje Jackelén Psychology Fraser Watts Paradox James E Loder Phase Space W Michael Dickson Philosophy of Religion Anders Jeffner Philosophy of Science Alisa Bokulich Philosophy of Science, History of Alisa Bokulich Physicalism, Reductive and Nonreductive Dennis Bielfeldt Physics Howard J Van Till Physics, Classical Howard J Van Till Physics, Particle John Polkinghorne Physics, Quantum W Michael Dickson Placebo Effect Howard Brody Planck Time John D Barrow Plato Psychology of Religion K Helmut Reich Punctuated Equilibrium Arn O Gyldenholm Quantum Cosmologies John D Barrow Quantum Field Theory John D Barrow Quantum Vacuum State Niu Shi-wei Realism Roger Trigg Reductionism Dennis Bielfeldt Reincarnation Harold Coward Relativity, General Theory of George F R Ellis Relativity, Special Theory of Howard J Van Till Religion and Values, Origins of Holmes Rolston, III Religion, Theories of Matthew C Bagger Reproductive Technology George H Rudebusch Playing God Suzanne Holland Revelation Ted Peters Pluralism Christopher C Knight Ritual Dennis Bielfeldt Pneumatology Hans J L Jensen Robotics Sigurd Bergmann Positivism, Logical Anne Foerst Sacramental Universe Roger Trigg Postfoundationalism Matthew Fox Sacraments F LeRon Shults Duane H Larson —xix— L IST OF A RTICLES Schrödinger’s Cat Sociology John D Barrow Science and Religion Robert John Russell Kirk Wegter-McNelly Science and Religion, History of Field John Hedley Brooke Science and Religion in Public Communication Stacey A Ake Adrian M Wyard Science and Religion, Methodologies Gregory R Peterson William H Swatos, Jr Soul Charles Taliaferro Space and Time Jennifer L Trusted Special Divine Action Thomas F Tracy Special Providence Charles Taliaferro Spirit John A Teske Science and Religion, Models and Relations Ian Barbour Spirituality Claire E Wolfteich Science and Religion, Periodical Literature Karl Giberson Spirituality and Faith Healing Jensine Andresen Science and Religion, Research in Christopher Southgate Spirituality and Health Science Fiction Noreen L Herzfeld Jensine Andresen Spirituality and the Practice of Science Science, Origins of Peter Harrison Science Wars Niels Viggo Hansen Scientism Mikael Stenmark Scopes Trial George E Webb Scriptural Interpretation Peter Van Ness Steady State Theory Mark Worthing Stem Cell Research Suzanne Holland String Theory William R Stoeger Supernaturalism Graham Ward Kurt Anders Richardson Selection, Levels of Superstrings William R Stoeger Michael Ruse Supervenience Self Léon Turner Fraser Watts Theo C Meyering Symbiosis Selfish Gene Mary Midgley Jeffrey P Schloss Symmetry Self-organization Palmyre M F Oomen Self-reference James E Loder Self-transcendence Brian L Lancaster Semiotics Michael L Raposa Shinto Yuri V Balashov Systems Theory Kathia Castro Laszlo T=0 Mark Worthing Tacit Knowledge Andy F Sanders Technology Frederick Ferré Masakazu Hara Technology and Ethics Sin Frederick Ferré Ted Peters Singularity Technology and Religion Frederick Ferré George F R Ellis Skyhooks Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre Ludovico Galleni Holmes Rolston, III Sociobiology Teleological Argument Michael Ruse William A Dembski —xx— L IST OF A RTICLES Teleology Two Books Keith Ward Theism Peter M J Hess UFO Philip Clayton Theodicy Ulf Görman Theological Anthropology Jan-Olav Henriksen Theology Robert Cummings Neville Theology, Theories of Robert Cummings Neville Ted Peters Unpredictability Dirk Evers Upward Causation Theo C Meyering Value George Allan Value, Religious Robert Cummings Neville Thermodynamics, Second Law of William R Stoeger Value, Scientific Thinking Machines Frederick Ferré Thiemo Krink Value, Value Theory Thomas Aquinas Edward Grant Time: Physical and Biological Aspects Dirk Evers Time: Religious and Philosophical Aspects Peter Øhrstrøm Transcendence George Allan Virtual Reality Anne Foerst Wave-particle Duality John D Barrow Whitehead, Alfred North Thomas Jay Oord Ernest Simmons Transmigration Womanist Theology Barbara A Holmes Ernest Simmons Truth, Theories of Worldview Mikael Stenmark Arne Grøn Turing Test Xenotransplantation Donna M McKenzie Thiemo Krink —xxi—