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Đề cương ôn tập môn Nhận thức ngôn ngữ Language Awareness hay, ngắn gọn Đề cương ôn tập môn Nhận thức ngôn ngữ Language Awareness hay, ngắn gọn Đề cương ôn tập môn Nhận thức ngôn ngữ Language Awareness hay, ngắn gọn Đề cương ôn tập môn Nhận thức ngôn ngữ Language Awareness hay, ngắn gọn Đề cương ôn tập môn Nhận thức ngôn ngữ Language Awareness hay, ngắn gọn
ĐỀ CƯƠNG ÔN TẬP MÔN NHẬN THỨC NGÔN NGỮ LANGUAGE AWARENESS Câu basic features of Language Awareness: - knowledge of the world: the way we use and understanding of language is affected by our specific cultural backgrounds,our learning experience,and the way we view the world - Context: the importance of situation and environment-including the relationship between initiator and recipient-in which people use language and their purpose in using it - Variety: the different form in which language is manifested - Medium: the modes or channels through which language may appear - Attitude: the fact that the people use language to convey different attitudes as well as the fact that they have different attitudes towards the language they encounter - Effectiveness: the degree to which users of language successfully achieve their purpose - Structure: the basic ways in which language's organized and structured - Flexibility: the way language is dynamic and able to adapt to changing circumstances Câu Definition of Language Awareness: - Language awareness can be defined as explicit knowledge about language and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning,language teaching and language use - It covers a wide spectrum of fields Language awareness issuses include exploring the benefits that can be derived from developing a good knowlegde about language,a conscious understanding of how lannguages work, of how people learn them and use them - Language awareness interests also include learning more about what sorts of ideas about language people normally operate with, and what effects these have on how they conduct their everyday affairs Ex: their professional dealings Câu Differences between British English and American English: can be seen in: spelling, pronounciation, grammar, use of words and phrases - Differences in spelling: + our, or: most words ending in unstressed -our in the United Kingdom(e.g: colour, flavour, homour) end in -or in the United Stated(e.g:color, flavor, homor) + xion, ction: the spellings connexion, inflextion are now somewhat rare in everyday British usage, but are not used at all in the US The more common connection, inflection + ise, ize: American spelling accepts only -ize endings in cased such as organize, recognize British usaged accepts both -ize and the more Frenchlooking -ise (organise, recognise) + yse, yze: ex: analyse (1) analyze (2) The first word is used in British The second word is used in American- Differences in pronounciation:can be devided into: differences in accent and differences in stress Ex: BrE: adv'ertisement and AmE: adver'tisement - Grammatical differences: + In names of American rivers, the word “river” usually come after the name E.g: Huong River + In Britain, it comes before E.g: River Thames + The word is also used at the end of a sentence in AmE, but not so commonly in BrE+ In most areas of the US, used the word “with” as an adverb In some British dialects, is used as an abbreviation - Differences in the use of words and phrases: Ex1: on the road BrE: + Car park AmE: + parking lot Ex2: building/ shop + Flat+ Apartment Ex3: Food + Biscuit+ Cookie Ex4: Sport+ Football+ Soccer Câu Code-switching, the functions: + Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to alternation between two or more languages, dialects, or language registers in a single conversation, stretch of discourse, or utterance between people who have more than one language in common + Code-switching is a widely observed phenomenon especially seen in multilingual communities - The functions of Teacher’s code-switching + Topic switch: The teacher alters his/her language according to topic that is under discussion This is mostly observed in grammar instruction, that the teacher shifts his language to the mother tongue of his students in dealing with particular grammar points, which are taught at that moment + Affective function (expression of emotions):In this respect, code-switching is used by teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the students + Repetitive function (repetition):The teacher uses code-switching in order to transfer the necessary knowledge for the students for clarity - The function of students’ code-switching: + Equivalence: The students makes use of the native equivalence of a his/her native language Equivalence function as a defensive mechanism for students as it gives the student the opportunity to continue communication by bridging the gaps resulting from foreign language incompetence + Floor-holding: The learners performing code switching for floor-holding generally have the same problem: they can not recall the appropriate target language structure or lexicon + Reiteration:The message in target language is repeated by the student in native tongue through which the learner tries to give the meaning by making use of a repetition technique + Conflict control: For the potentially conflictive language use of a students, the code switching is a strategy to transfer the intended meaning The lack of some culturally equipvalent lexis among the native language and target language – which may lead to violation of the transference of intended meaning – may result in code switching for conflict control, therefore possible misunderstands are avoided Câu Language families, people speak English as 1st language and 2nd language, United Nations: - According to Ethnologue, there are 218 language families in the world - There are languages are used in United Nation It consists of English, Chinese, French, Russian, Spanish and Arabic - English language has about 340 million 1st language speakers and 168 million 2nd language speakers Câu “New Englishes” “Standard English”, E.S.L, E.F.L and E.I.L: According to Tom McArthur, New Englishes is a term for “recently emerging and increasingly autonomous varieties of English, especially in a non-western setting, such as India, Nigeria or Singapore” +Standard English (SE): is the prestigious variety of English that is understood all over the world where any knowledge of any varity of English exists Standard English relates to vocabulary and grammar and is independent of pronunciation + E.S.L ( English as a Second Language): this term relates to the English used by between 150 and 300 million people in approximately 50 territoties worldwide in which English is not the mother tongue, but nervertheless has special status, usually due to colonization + E.F.L (English as a Foreign Language): The English learned and used by those for whom it is not their first or second tongue, e.g: the rest of the world + E.I.L ( English as a Internetional Language): The concept that the role of English has achieved global by being recognized almost every country in the world, and being used by people of different nations communicate with one another Câu Definition of a dialect, an accent and a pidgin + Dialects: are the regional varieties of English which differ from Standard English with respect to vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation + Accents: are the regional varieties of English which differ from Standard English only in their pronunciation +A Pidgin: is a language made up of elements of two or more other languages, the purpose of which is to make contact with other people None has a pidgin as their mother tongue Câu Three circles of the English language The Indian- born linguist Braj Kachru adopted a way of representing English varieties in the world in the form of three concentric circles, and this model has been every influential + The inner circle: contains the Anglo Englishes and includes the UK, the USA, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand: English is the primary language in many situations for these nations + The outer circle: contains the non-Anglo Englishes The spread of English began through the colonial government when English became a part of the countries; chief instutions, and exists in a complementary fashion with other languages + The expanding circle: involes those nations that recognize the importance of English as an international language, although they have no history of colonization by members of the inner circle and English is not given official status in these countries English in these countries, unlike in the inner circle and outer circle, is almost never used for intra-national communication Câu The characteristics of New Englishes: - They are used in multi-lingual and multicultural communities which are culturally divergent from Britain - The spread of NEs was through the classroom, and the point of reference, as far as notions of correctness were concerned, was external - NEs tend to play complementary, as district, all- purpose roles in their contexts of use - NEs are the result of the transformation of English in interaction with the life of its new contexts, as it adapts itself to handle new objects, relationships, experiences, and develops new resources to carry and express new meaning, cultures and viewpoint - NEs are systematic in their own way and allow their users to express meanings that are relevant to themselves Câu 10 Definition of Vocabulary - Vocabulary is a set of words known to a person or other entity, or that are part os a specific language - Features: + The vocabulary of a person is defined either as the set of all words that are understood by that person or the set of all words likely to be used by that person when constructing new sentences + The richness of a person’s vocabulary is popularly thought to be a reflection of intelligence or level of education + Increasing the size of one’s vocabulary, also called vocabulary building, is generally considered to be an important part of both learning a language and improving one’s skills in a language in which one is already proficient Câu 11 Grammar: Grammar is the study of rules governing the use of language The set of rules governing a particular language is the grammar of that language Thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar Grammar is part of the general study of language call linguistics Grammar is a way of thinking about language - The subfields of grammar: are phonetic, phonology, morphology, systax, semantics and pragmatics However, grammar includes only morphology and syntax Câu 12 Taboo language consists of the words are those that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mix company or polite company - the characteristics of taboo language: + it is universal + it is the language that “should not” be used, especially not in polite company + when an act is considered taboo, the words describing it often are, too + close correlation between how taboo the concept and how taboo the word “taboos” are culture- specific, even if two countries share the same language three main clusters.- sex, sex organs, taboo sex (e.g: with family members)bodily functions- religion: words considered profane if used outside the domain of the formal/religious ceremonies Câu 14 Taboo languages, Neurophysiological responses Taboo language consists of the words are those that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mix company or polite company - Because: + expressing pain, anger, frustration, annoyance + insulting someone, directly or descriptively + invoking or wishing for supernatural assistance in harming someone + adding emphasis to statement to statements whether positive or negative in content + using certain taboo words, or referring to certain concepts in any way at all + issuing ritual guarantees of truthfulness + studies have indicated that those who swear regularly suffer less from stress than those who not + if you are with a group of close friends, the more relaxed you are, the more you swear - Neurophysiological responses: + taboo words produce physical effects in people who read or hear them + elevated heart rate + elevated skin conductivity + arm hair raises + more shallow breathing Câu 15 Aphasia, swearing and Euphemisms + A Euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression on place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak, to make it less troublesome for the speaker The existence of taboo words stimulates creation of euphemisms +a “nicer” way of saying something to replace a taboo word or avoid frightening/unpleasant subjects: die-pass away Anti-euphemism: non-offensive words become offensive in a particular context + Aphasia: Loss of the ability to use and understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain The loss may be total or partial, and may affect spoken and/or written language ability There are different types of aphasia: agraphia is difficulty in writing, alexia is difficulty in reading, anomia is difficulty in using proper nouns, and agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions, articles Aphasia can be studied in order to discover how the brain processes language + Swearing: a term that refer to both taking an OATH and using language that is regarded as foul, abusive, and profane Câu 16 Polotical Correctness: + Polotical Correctness: is a term used to describe language or behaviour which is intended, or said to be intended, to provide a minimum of offense, particularly to racial cultural, or other identity groups A text that conforms to the ideas of political correctness is said to be politically correct - Features: + The term “Polotical Correctness” is used almost exclusively in a pejorative sense However, term such as inclusive language and civility are often used to praise language that is seen by critics as “Polotical Correctness” Those who use the term in a critical fashion often express a concern about the dilution of freedom of speech, intolerance of language, and the avoidance of a discussion of social problems + The existence of Polotical Correctness has been alleged and denounced by conservative, liberal, and other commentators The term itself an its usage, however, is hotly contested Some commentator, usually on the political left, have argued that the term “Polotical Correctness” is a straw man invented by the New Right to discredit what they consider progressive social change, especially around issuses of race and gender Câu 17 Language Change: is the manner in which the phonetic, morphological, sematic, syntactic, and other features of a language are modified over time All languages are continually changing - Why: + Large –scale shifts often occur in response to social, economic and political pressures History records many example of language change fueled by invasion, colonization and migration Even without these kinds of influences, a language can change dramatically if enough users alter the way the speak it + The needs of speakers drive language change New technologies, industries, products and experiences simply require new words, By using new and emerging terms, we all drive language change But the unique way that individuals speak also fuels language change That’s because no two individuals use a language in exactly the same way The vocabulary and phrases people use depend on where they live, their ages, education level, social status and other factors Through our interactions, we pick up new words and sayings and intergrate them into our speech Câu 18 Causes of language change: - Economy:Speakers tend to make their utterances as efficient as possible: they try to exert the least effort in communicating with language - Analogy: + An Analogy can be the linguistic process that reduces word forms perceived as irregular by remaking them in the shape of more common forms that are gorverned by rules + Neologims can also be formed by analogy with existing words + Analogy is often presented as an alternative mechanism to generative rules for explaining productive formation of structures such as words - Language contact: + Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact The study of language contact is called contact linguistic + Multilingualism has been common throughout much of human histories Even in hunter – gatherer times, to judge by recent parallels, multilingualism was not uncommon, as bands would need to communicate with neighboring peoples who often spoke differing languages + when speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other Languages normally develop by gradually accumulating internal differences until one parent language splits into daughter languages Câu 19 Types of language change: All languages are constantly changing The causes are many and varied - Lexical changes: + The constant influx of new words in the English language would make it an obvious choice of investigation into language change, although it is difficult to define precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of English + Dictionary writers try to keep track of the change in language by recording the appearance - Phonetic and phonological changes: + Small-scale phonological changes are difficult to map and record, especially as the technology of sound recording only go back a hundreds years or so - Spelling changes: + The modern obsession with spelling is a fairly recent trend Differences in spelling are very often the most immediately obviously thing about a text from a previous century + The development of printing press, however, presented printers with dilemmas texts from the fifteenth through to the seventeenth centuries show many internal inconsistencies, with the same word often being spelled differently within the same text + Additionally, they were tempted to choose from the various spelling based on typographical criterion It being easy to make one of the lines of type longer than to make other lines shorter, word lengths tended to standardize on the longer spellings + Unfortunately modern spellings were not the result of a single consistent system, rather, they show evidence of previous pronunciations derived from many foreign language influences + Spelling is stuck in the 15th century, when William Caxton chose the London variety of English for his first print in 1476 He had to discriminate against many duplicate words used in other kingdoms of England - Semantic change: + The appearance of a new word is only the beginning of its existence Once it becomes part of the language the meaning and applications it has foe speakers can shift dramatically + Other semantic change includes narrowing and broadening Narrowing a word semantically limits its alternative meanings Câu 20 Loanword: A loanword is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation -Features -Classes of borrowed words: + Certain class of words are more commonly borrowed than others, usually words of exotic concepts or ideas + What is “exotic” varies from language to language Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords, and most of technical vocabulary referring to classical music is borrowed from Italian - Beyond words: + Indiomatic expressions and phrases, sometimes translated word- for- word, can be borrowed, usually from a language that has “ prestige” at the time + Often, a borrowed idiom is used as a euphemism for a less polite term in the original language + In English, this has been Latinisms from the Latin language and Gallicisms from French If the phrase is translated word –for- word, it is known as a calque Câu 21 Loanwords in English: English has many loanwords Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows: + French, including Old French and Anglo – French: 28,3% + Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin : 28,24% + Germanic languages, including Old and Middle Engish: 25% + Greek: 5,32%+ No etymology given or unknown: 4,03% + Derived from proper names: 3,28% + All other languages contributed less than 1% - The reasons for English’s vast borrowing include: + the existence of other languages native to Britain + the invasion of England by the Vikings and the Normans + its modern importance + its being a scientific language + its development as a trade language in the 18th century + the flexibility of its syllable structure This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy to incorporate new words However, English pronunciations of loanwords often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not be able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken English often borrows words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies Câu 22 Sexist Language: is language that is meant to include all people, but inadvertenly excludes either men or women - the ways to avoid Sexist Language: + not assume that a particular job is filled by a particular type of person + avoid gendered pronouns by making them plural + avoid terms like “man” as a noun when you are really reffering to men and women E.g: early man used a system of gestures to communicate – early humans used…… + when using pronouns, you have several choices Pick the one that seems most natural in context: a, change singular nouns to plurals and use a neutral pronoun, or try to avoid the pronoun entirely E.g: each student must have his notebook with him in class= all students must have notebooks with them in class b, if you think you must use a singular adjective like “each” and “every”, try to avoid the pronoun entirely E.g: each student must hand in his homework on Thursday = each student must hand in the assigned homework on Thursday c, when using a job title, try to eliminate the pronoun E.g: the nurse awoke her patient= the nurse awoke the patient d, when eliminating the pronoun seems unavoidable + use both male and female pronouns, E.g: a student should meet his advisor = a student should meet his or her advisor + alternaten male and female pronouns throughout the paper + choose a single sex pronoun and use it consistently throughout the paper But be especially carefull not to this in a way that will perpetuate stereotypes + instead of sex-linked titles, try neutral titles: Fireman- fireperson is awkward but firefighter is not Policeman – policeperson sounds silly, but police officer does not Câu 23 Ways to avoid Sexist Language in writing - biased language can alienate any potential reader If you alienate you lose credibility Without their faith in your words you have lost your audience and can not make your argument Therefore,avoiding sexism in your writing benefits everyone.a, He/she + the use of masculine pronoun to refer to both genders is offensive to many people Also,using terms such as "man" to define people can often be confusing -are you referring only to "men" or to "all people"? The easiest and best way to get around this is to rewrite the sentence in the plural,or avoid using a pronoun altogether E.g: the executive cannot his pjob properly until he understands how Correct to:executives cannot their job properly until they understands howb, Ms/Miss/Mrs + Miss refers to an unmarried woman Mrs refers to a married woman Ms is a universally accepted form of addressing a woman regardless of her matial status This should be adopted whenever possible + however,there are women indicate a preference for either Miss or Mrs and that preference should be honored if known When addressing general audience,or if you are not sure of the woman's marital status, always use Ms + don't assume that a particular job is filled by a particular gender + try not to be confusing by going overboard with terms such as "salewoman", or "saleperson" Instead,use simple words like "sale associate" Câu 24 Differences between spoken language and writing language: (SL) is a form of human communication in which words derived from a large vocabulary together with a diverse varietyof names are uttered through or with her mouth + SL is less formal than written language + SL is not permanent + SL is less clearly structured with hesitations, false start + Spoken interactions are often conducted face to face + Speakers have identifiable accents + Spoken interactions are really synchronous, where speaker and learner interact within the same immediate time frame- Written language (WL) is often used for formal purpose + WL is relatively permanent + WL is often more structured with segmentation, conventions + Written interactions are usually conductef at a distance + Writers have no accents but often have clearly recognizable styles + Written interactions are usually asynchronous, where writer and reader interact over a period of different, non- immediate time frames Câu 25 Standard English + Standard English: is the prestigious variety of English that is understood all over the world where any knowledge of any variety of English exists Standard English relates to vocabulary and grammar and is independent if pronunciation + Standard English is a term generally applied to a form of the English language that is thought to be normative It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and to some degree pronunciation or possibly accent + SE is not widely produced in speech, it is only used in writing, only a minority of people within a country actually use it when they talk - Non-Standard English + the term nonstandard was introduced by linguist and lexicogrsphers to describe usages and language varieties that had previously been labled with terms such as vulgar and illiterate + Nonstandard is not simplya euphenism but reflects the empirical discovery that the varieties used by low- prestige groupss have rich and systematic grammatical structures and that their stigmatization more often relects a judgment about their speakers rather than any inherent deficiencies in logic or expressive power Note,however, that the use of nonstandard forms is not necessarily restricted to the communities with which they are associated in the public mind Câu 26 Teaching the spoken lannguage - some aspects of spoken language are very teachable + we can make students aware of the nature and characteristics of the spoken language + we can give them opportunities to analyse and to produce spontaneous language - In teaching spoken language needs: + applying appropriate standards: One of the most important things we can as teachers is recognize that spoken and written language are different from one another in important ways and to apply appropriate standards to the different forms It is not unusual for teachers to insist on written forms Many teachers have a tendency to insist that students speak in complete sentences, encourage them to produce complex sentences although native speakers rarely produce spoken language like this + highlighting differences between spoken and written language It is useful to encourage students to recognize that spoken language can be untidy and includes elements like false starts and “ers and erms”