877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 4/8/08 12:33 Página TEACHER’S RESOURCE PACK www.santillana.es 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página Contents INTRODUCTION Student’s Book organisation Classroom techniques Teacher’s Resource Pack 12 PowerPoint presentations 14 Webquests 15 Values and competencies 17 ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE PROGRAMMING AND RESOURCES The Universe 20 Planet Earth 28 Living things 36 Invertebrates 44 Vertebrates 52 The plant and fungi kingdoms 60 The simplest living things 68 The Earth’s atmosphere 76 The hydrosphere 84 10 Minerals 92 11 Rocks 100 12 Matter and its properties 108 13 Everything is matter 116 14 Atoms and elements 124 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página Essential Natural Science Essential Natural Science is a four-level course which teaches the core curricular objectives of Natural Science to students aged 12 to 16 Drawing on recent progress in the field of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), the course has been designed as an effective, user-friendly tool in the classroom Its goal is to combine scientific accuracy with clarity of presentation and simplicity of language Research tasks and stimulating activities help learners to develop valuable skills and to reflect on the learning process Every opportunity has been taken to personalise the contents so that young learners develop scientific curiosity, as well as responsibility for the world they live in Special attention has been paid to the following aspects: • Sequencing of contents • Level of difficulty in both the explanations and the activities • Quantity and diversity of the activities • Quality of the illustrations and visual explanations • Level of English used throughout the course 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página Student’s Book GENERAL ORGANISATION The fourteen units are structured into four learning blocks that take the student from the broadest concept - the Universe, to the smallest concept - the atom Learning block I The Universe and the Solar System; the Earth Learning block II Living beings: invertebrates, vertebrates, microorganisms Learning block III Materials that make up the Earth: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, minerals and rocks Learning block IV The chemical study of material: matter, molecules and atoms Learning to learn Each of the four blocks is introduced by a double-page spread which gives students their first contact with scientific procedures These pages provide initial training in study skills necessary for the young scientist, in preparation for the themes to be studied The focus of these pages is on learning to learn - finding one’s way in the scientific world The topics presented on these pages are: • The telescope • The optical microscope • Other scientific instruments: the stereoscopic microscope, weather instruments • An introduction to the Periodic Table of Elements UNIT ORGANISATION The fourteen units are organised in the same way: Introductory page What you remember?: photographs with questions to stimulate recall of prior knowledge Content objectives: scientific learning objectives Key language: a summary of the key language structures and functions used throughout the unit Unit development The main theme is divided into sections Each section answers the title question and develops the concepts in detail Activities on the page ensure reinforcement and extension practice of both scientific concepts and language Hands on One page of practical activities to carry out in the classroom (or the laboratory if available) Activity page One page of round-up activities for revision and extension Unit summary: What should you know? A summary of the key concepts, also recorded on the Student’s CD 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página Language support Meticulous language support throughout Essential Natural Science reflects the fact that Science is being taught in English, and English through Science • Key language focuses attention on structures and functions that appear regularly in the unit • Activities are often accompanied by word or sentence prompts as guidance • The Vocabulary appendix groups terms from each unit with a brief definition See pages 160 - 163 • The Key language appendix offers more language models See pages 164 - 167 • Pronunciation can be practised by listening to the recording of the unit summary, What should you know? provided on the Student’s CD Classroom techniques UNIT INTRODUCTORY PAGE To take maximum advantage of this page, use some of these techniques: • Photographs and questions Focus attention on the photo/s and ask: What does this photo represent? If students answer in L1, rephrase their answers in English: Yes, it’s a photo of / it represents… • Read the title and ask: How is the photo related to the title? Make sure you rephrase all the answers in English • Help activate prior knowledge by creating a word map on the board Elicit words or phrases directly related to the theme of the unit • Introduce each of the three introductory sections separately What you remember? • Read the questions aloud, then students work in pairs or groups to answer • Encourage students to share and compare their responses: Let’s share information for question Do you remember anything about from previous courses? Can you name other things that belong to this group? etc • Add new vocabulary contributed by the class to the word map on the board 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página Content objectives • Read and explain the content objectives Encourage learners to predict what they will learn: What you think we will discover with regard to the first objective? Give priority to the content of the students’ predictions rather than the correctness of their English Key language • Read the headings and examples aloud Ask students if they can provide more examples: Can you make other sentences like these? • Turn to the Key language section at the end of the book Students will find new examples of language functions for each unit LEAD-INS Devise a variety of lead-ins (short activities at the beginning of the lesson) Create a file with the more successful ones and use them every day with books closed Some practical suggestions: • Use simple ‘true or false’ statements to focus attention on a new topic, for example: Plants and fungi belong to the same kingdom True or false? All rocks are solid True or false? • Do quick hand counts to assess how much practical experience students have: Put up your hand if you have ever seen an eclipse; visited a planetarium … Count the hands and present conclusions: Most students have (never) visited a planetarium • Carry out a demonstration or quick experiment and ask a question about it: What happens when I drop (a plastic bottle / a rubber ball) on the floor? What would happen if I dropped (a glass bottle)? • Do ‘brain gym’: write the letters H I J K L M N O and tell students they represent the word ‘water’ (H to O or H2O); What is and 2? (4 or 22) • Brainstorming: Find three scientific terms beginning with the letter ‘s’ Say the names of the planets in alphabetical order, etc • Use the Vocabulary organiser, provided on the Student’s and Class CDs Write a scientific term on the board and ask individual students what it means in L1, how to pronounce it and what visual and written association they might give it • Arouse students’ curiosity: cover a shoe box with attractive paper and keep it in the classroom Put interesting specimens, related to the content of the day’s lesson, into the box (rocks, a leaf, an insect, etc.) Invite students to guess what the specimen might be: What’s in my mystery box today? Encourage students to provide specimens as well 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página UNIT DEVELOPMENT PAGES Most units contain between and sections Each section begins with a numbered scientific question to be answered and developed in various sub-sections Highly effective visuals accompany the texts, and the key vocabulary is highlighted in bold Did you know that…? boxes provide interesting additional information related to some of the main texts The majority of the content pages feature an Activities box Students carry out the tasks directly related to the content of the section, or supplementary research on the topic Before reading Whenever introducing a new section, use some of these techniques to aid reading comprehension Read Essential Natural Science, page 64, to follow this explanation • Presentation: Read the section number and question aloud For example, Two What are non-flowering plants like? Brainstorm possible answers If reading out a yes / no question, for example, Can plants react?, students predict what the answer might be • Skimming: Ask a general question about the section: How many types of non-flowering plants are there? The bold words in the first paragraph, the headings of the two subsections that follow, as well as the drawings, provide an immediate answer: Two Ask: What are they? and elicit the answer: Mosses and ferns This helps students become familiar with how the information is structured and presented • Scanning: Copy an incomplete sentence or definition from a section on the board Students complete it with the appropriate word, for example: Mosses produce inside capsules Or, ask a question that students can answer by looking at the text more closely: Where spores grow? This helps students focus on specific information • Focus on key vocabulary: Draw attention to the words in bold, then ask students to refer to the Key vocabulary on pages 160 -163 to find some definitions Encourage them to complete the Vocabulary organiser for each unit (See Vocabulary organiser, page 9.) 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página • Focus on Key language: Ask: Can you find any examples of the key language here? Students refer back to the introductory page, then scan the text again to find examples They copy the functions in their notebooks and colour-code both the functions and the grammar points to improve recall: Comparing – Ferns are bigger than mosses Making generalisations – Most gymnosperms are evergreens While reading • Specific task: Students read the page individually or in pairs to complete a task, for example, finding a definition or answering a specific question • General task: Ask students to find the main idea in the text After reading • Students can be asked to summarise the text orally, or in writing, especially if it describes a process or transmits an opinion • They can also read the text again and write down key facts in note form: Mosses: non-flowering, non-vascular plants No true roots, stems or leaves… ILLUSTRATIONS The illustrations in Essential Natural Science include high-quality photographs, drawings, maps, charts and diagrams with captions which provide explanations and / or additional information The drawings illustrate states or conditions that cannot be represented with photos, such as processes They are labelled to provide students with essential key vocabulary The illustrations in the Student’s Book satisfy the following criteria: • Quality: chosen for their clarity and level of detail • Representativeness: the best-known and most frequent examples are shown • Ease of identification: all the necessary references are provided EXPLOITING THE ILLUSTRATIONS Depending on the type, an illustration can be used to help students quickly grasp a complex idea or set of data, describe a situation or a process, predict an outcome, support an explanation or develop observation skills and attention to detail Do the following activities: • Make sure students know the meaning of these terms: diagram, close-up, magnified image, cross-section, graph, bar graph, pie chart and table They should use the correct term when describing an illustration 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 4/8/08 12:33 Página Plants shell stomach water 74 % body mass lung eyes lipids 0.8 % foot Cross-section of a snail mouth mineral salts 3.2 % proteins 3.2 % glucides 19 % Pie chart of organic and inorganic substances • Identify the type of illustration and say what it represents: This is a (cross-section) of (a snail) This (pie chart) shows the percentages of organic and inorganic substances in plants • Focus attention on the caption and read it aloud, then help students reword the information: The pie-chart shows the percentages of organic and inorganic substances in plants • Read the labels that flag the different parts of the illustration and make sure students know how to pronounce the words They may add new words to their Vocabulary organiser for the unit ACTIVITIES Activities throughout the unit provide exercises to help students analyse, revise, extend and summarise the new concepts There are several different types: • Global comprehension activities These include questions to help students clarify concepts, compare elements by describing similarities and differences, describe the outcome of experiments, draw inferences from known facts, or use logic to solve problems These questions require a degree of linguistic competence on the student’s part Encourage them to consult the Key language boxes and the Vocabulary and Key language sections at the end of the book • Activities based on illustrations These involve observing or producing a drawing, a diagram, a graph or a chart Remind students that clear, uncluttered pages and neat labelling are essential, and spelling should always be double-checked • Activities based on research These aim is to help develop research skills and skill in collecting, selecting and representing information gathered from different sources, such as encyclopedias, books, specialised publications and the Internet Students can work in groups, especially to produce the end of unit Web task Encourage them to create multi-media presentations to show to the class 877310 _ 0001-0019.qxd 22/8/08 07:41 Página 10 HANDS ON • One page per unit provides a practical activity designed to foster scientific skills Some of these activities can substitute for work in a Science laboratory, or, indeed be carried out in a laboratory The activities have been chosen so that students acquire scientific methodology and observational skills and become familiar with scientific procedures • The experiments are safe, easy to set up and not require complicated, expensive materials The methodology can be studied without performing the experiments at all • The Hands on activities encourage students to apply the knowledge they have acquired to the comprehension of the world around them WHAT SHOULD YOU KNOW? • The end-of-unit summary synthesizes the most important concepts which have been taught, providing a concise overview This summary is recorded on the Student’s CD and can be used for revision and additional oral and pronunciation practice • What should you know? pages are ideal as revision sheets, to be studied before the Unit test, or before main exams The track number is supplied on the CD icon: PROJECTS • Each unit summary is followed by one or two Projects in which students can relate science to technology, society, and the environment If done in pairs or groups, the projects will ensure more varied input and help students develop strategies for successful team work, such as delegating, sharing and negotiating STUDENT’S CD The Student’s CD provides the following resources: • Audio tracks The unit summaries What should you know? can be used either in class or by the students at home to revise the content of the unit and to practise the pronunciation of key vocabulary and expressions • Web tasks: one, sometimes two, per unit Each task poses a question to solve, together with several pre-selected links to the Internet Web tasks are miniresearch tasks: students are instructed to go to selected web pages to find the information they need They then represent the results in the form of reports, graphs, posters, etc They can be done individually, in pairs or in groups • Activity sheets Blank diagrams for students to use to revise the key unit vocabulary There are between two and four per unit They can be printed out and completed individually or in pairs 10 877310 _ 0116-0123.qxd 13 4/8/08 12:37 Página 122 WORKSHEET EVERYTHING IS MATTER NAME: CLASS: DATE: Recycling facts and figures Why recycle? Because recycling saves energy and helps to conserve the environment Although 50% of waste is recycled in some European countries, in others the percentage is much lower Over half of the rubbish that ends up in the dustbin could be recycled Just think of all the plastics, paper, cans, and glass we throw straight into the bin, when they could be recycled Glass, for example, is 100% recyclable and can be reused time and time again If it is not recycled and ends up in a landfill, it will never decompose Aluminium cans, like the ones which contain drinks, can be recycled and ready to use in just six weeks We can save money by buying products which not have a lot of packaging At the moment, about 16% of the money we spend on a product pays for the packaging, which we just throw away later Plastic is another material that can easily be recycled It really is a good idea to throw plastic articles into the right dustbin for recycling, because plastic can take up to 500 years to decompose We can also help to conserve the environment by recycling paper It takes twenty-four trees to make one ton of newspaper, and the production of paper made from wood causes 27% more air pollution than recycled paper In addition, 70% less energy is needed to recycle paper than to produce it from raw materials Find words or expressions in the text which mean the following a a garbage can: d rubbish dump: b in the end: e separate into basic components: c waste: Answer the questions a Why should glass be recycled? b Why should we avoid buying products with a lot of packaging? On a separate sheet of paper, design a poster to encourage recycling Use a catchy slogan to get your message across! _ / 20 122 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 877310 _ 0116-0123.qxd 13 4/8/08 12:37 Página 123 TEST 13 EVERYTHING IS MATTER NAME: CLASS: DATE: Circle the correct answer According to particle theory, the particles within matter are (a) static (b) in constant attraction and repulsion (c) in constant motion Above its boiling point, a substance is (a) a gas (b) a liquid (c) a solid Solutions are usually (a) solid mixtures (b) liquid mixtures (c) gaseous mixtures Chemical change involves (a) a chemical reaction (b) a physical change (c) a breakdown into simpler substances Rocks are usually (a) homogeneous mixtures (b) heterogeneous mixtures (c) chemical compounds In a solution, the dissolved substance is called the (a) solvent (b) solute (c) dissolution Chemical elements are (a) solutions (b) compounds (c) pure substances Synthetic materials are obtained from natural substances which are transformed by (a) chemical processes (b) chemical reactions (c) chemical changes Fibre optic is a fibre made from (a) carbon (b) petroleum (c) glass or plastic 10 Batteries, old medicines and paints must be disposed of in (a) a rubbish dump (b) a waste collection area (c) a collection dump Read the text and answer the questions Particles Particles of matter not change from one state to another They only change their arrangement or their energy When matter changes state, no mass is lost and no mass is created When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and move more and more rapidly The forces of attraction between the particles are weakened, and at a certain temperature, they have enough energy to break free from their positions Then, the solid changes into a liquid in a process called fusion Find the opposite of the following words in the text a gained: d slowly: b destroyed: e strengthened: c cooled: f solidification: What two changes can occur in particles of matter? What happens when a solid is heated? What is fusion? _ / 20 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 123 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 4/8/08 12:38 Página 124 Atoms and elements OBJECTIVES To recognise atoms as the basic components of matter To understand chemical formulas To learn how elements are classified To learn about the elements that can be found in nature To learn how atoms are organised To write a Fact File about a chemical element CONTENTS CONCEPTS • Atoms: definition, structure and atomic number • Atoms, molecules and crystals • The Periodic Table of Elements; symbols and properties of common elements PROCEDURES & KEY SKILLS • • • • ATTITUDES • Showing interest in learning how matter is structured • Valuing the properties of elements and substances and their applications Using and analysing graphs and pie charts Writing a Fact File Understanding chemical formulas Interpreting scientific texts COMPETENCES Mathematical competence: understanding data expressed as percentages (section 6, p 155) Knowledge and interaction with the physical world: understanding the Periodic Table of Elements and using it to classify elements (section 3, p 152); understanding the differences between atoms, molecules and crystals (section 4, p 153); understanding chemical formulas (section 5, p 154); learning about the elements in nature (section 6, p 155) Autonomy and personal initiative: researching elements and completing Fact Files about them (Hands on, p 157); researching the importance of soil nitrogen (Investigate, p 159) 124 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 22/8/08 08:02 Página 125 VALUES Health Education Certain elements such as uranium, thorium, polonium and radium emit radiations These radiations can expose photographic plates, ionise gases, produce fluorescence, penetrate opaque bodies, etc Radiations can also destroy tumor cells, and constitute an efficient therapy for cancer The brain and bones can be explored with the help of radiation, and radioactive elements can be used to trace hormones and other chemical compounds of organisms However, radiation can be harmful to cells If it is handled inadequately, exposure to high levels can be toxic, and even fatal The risks to health depend on the intensity of the radiation, the length of the exposure and the capacity of given tissues to absorb it: for example, reproductive organs are twenty times more sensitive than skin EVALUATION CRITERIA Can explain what matter is made up of Can describe and explain how elements are classified Can explain how atoms are organised Can describe the properties of chemical elements found in nature Can research an element and produce a Fact File Can explain what a chemical formula is and the information contained in it INTERNET, BOOKS AND FILMS Web links Atoms, quarks and the Periodic Table The science centre M Tweed http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_chlorine/science_ index.asp?CID=1210&DID=4580&CTYPEID=113 Explores the world of matter, including up-to-date findings, but without forgetting knowledge gained throughout the centuries Helpful American guide for science teachers Books Films Mr Tompkins explores the atom Flubber George Gamow Director: Les Mayfield This book explains with humour the behaviour of atoms, fusions and nuclear fission, along with other topics Professor Philip Brainard has created a new and revolutionary invention It is green, it flies and looks like rubber It is Flubber! ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 125 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 18/9/08 15:21 Página 126 WORKSHEET ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: Put the words in order and write correct sentences matter is atoms All of made up All the the atom of core nucleus called is central The The called orbit the electrons Particles nucleus Particles is an empty Most of atom Most Use the clues to solve the puzzle and discover the mystery word You have lots of this in your bones and teeth A noble gas, it makes up 15.9 % of matter in the Universe This is a rare noble gas which is used in advertising This one is easy – it is the same name as a planet! A rare Earth element named after a continent The most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere, and a basic compound of protein Used in the manufacture of aircraft and satellites, was this one named after the famous DiCaprio film? Used in making paper, matches, gunpowder and insecticides, it burns with a blue flame and gives off a terrible smell! The mystery word is: Write the atomic number of each element in the shaded squares of the puzzle Correct the information in these sentences Electrons have a positive charge (+) An atom is the largest part of an element Noble gases join up with each other to form molecules There are three types of molecules All crystals closely resemble each other _ / 25 126 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 4/8/08 12:38 Página 127 WORKSHEET ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: Chemical suffixes are syllables that are placed after the name of an element to indicate changes in its chemical composition Match each chemical suffix to its meaning The following suffixes indicate: -ate a a chemical compound, for example hydrogen sulfide -ide b the presence of alcohol or phenol, for example glycol -in c the salt of an acid, for example sulfate -ite d the salt of an acid, for example sulfite -ol e a sugar, for example fructose -ose f a neutral compound, for example glycerin Complete the sentences with the words in the box ethanol oxides protein nitrites/nitrates salt sugars Maltose, lactose and fructose are all all include oxygen in their composition is a synonym of alcohol The chemical compound NaCl is our common table , a chief constituent of animal bodies, is also a neutral compound , which are food additives found in many treated meats, are not good for you Answer the questions using the Periodic Table of Elements on page 152 of your Student’s Book How many … … solid elements are there? … liquid elements are there? … gases are there? … noble gases are there? … artificial elements are there? Which element has only one atom in its nucleus? What is the symbol for mercury? What is the symbol for Sodium? _ / 20 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 127 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 22/8/08 08:03 Página 128 WORKSHEET ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: In pairs, guess the elements referred to in the column on the left Write the chemical name, the atomic symbol and the atomic number for each English name Atomic symbol Atomic number Latin name aurum argentum cuprum ferrum Planets Mercury Uranus Neptune Pluto Plutonium Pu 94 People P & M Curie A Einstein D Mendeleev E Lawrence Einsteinium Es 99 Places France California Poland Ytterby, Sw Complete the definitions about the organisation of atoms Look at page 153 of your Student’s Book Every chemical element has its own Simple consist of two or more atoms of the same joined together The noble gases are : they not join up with each other to form The atoms of most elements join up with each other to form , of which there are types Crystals consist of or arranged in a regular, organised structure Each crystal has a different Simple crystals consist of groups of atoms of the same joined together in an organised Compound crystals consist of of atoms from different elements _ / 55 128 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 18/9/08 15:22 Página 129 WORKSHEET ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: Work in pairs Take turns to read Classify the sentences and write the numbers in the correct box Atoms 10 Chemical formule They indicate how many atoms of each element make up a molecule They are composed of a nucleus, protons, neutrons and electrons The ones for simple substances describe molecules with just one element Each one has a unique number of protons in its nucleus The ones for compound substances indicate which elements make up the molecule Some can be broken down by chemical reaction In the case of simple crystals, they are simply the chemical symbols of the elements Most of the space in them is empty Some of their particles have a positive charge while others have a negative charge In the case of compound crystals, they indicate the elements and their proportions within the crystal Complete and classify the sentences Write the numbers in the correct box Elements in nature In the Earth’s crust makes up 83 % of the Universe and its symbol is H2 Four elements, There is a lot of a non-metal substance called , , combine to make up 95 % of all living things , and in quartz is a soft white metal obtained from bauxite, and which is a claylike ore is the basis of all organic compounds in living things Its symbol is C combines with oxygen to form hematite and magnetite, and it is also present in our blood These five elements are the most abundant in the rocks and minerals of the Earth’s crust Its symbol is He; makes up almost one sixth of the Universe, but very little is found on Earth The metal , found in minerals such as olivine, burns with a bright white flame 10 Its symbol is N2 and it is the most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere _ / 20 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 129 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 4/8/08 12:38 Página 130 WORKSHEET ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: The inventor of the Periodic Table Mendeleev’s start in life was difficult Born in Siberia in 1834, he was the youngest of an enormous family of at least fourteen children His father, the headmaster of a local school, went blind and could no longer work So his mother started a glass factory to support the family However, just as Mendeleev was finishing high school, his father died and the glass factory burned down His mother, a very determined woman, took him to St Petersburg - apparently they hitchhiked the four thousand miles there - and worked tirelessly to get him into university St Petersburg Mendeleev became a university professor In the late 1860s, he began working on his lifetime achievement, the Periodic Table of Elements Over the years, he arranged the 63 known elements by their atomic weights (later changed to atomic numbers), from the lowest to the highest At the same time, he grouped them according to their properties Wherever a gap appeared in the table, he predicted that a new element would one day fill it And he was right! In fact, three of those elements were discovered during his lifetime—gallium, scandium, and germanium Correct the information in the following sentences Mendeleev went to university in Siberia When he started to compile his table, there were 68 known elements He arranged the elements from the highest to the lowest atomic weights He also organised them according to their abundance on Earth He stated that no new elements would be found List the other scientists whose names appear on the Periodic Table Think and answer What can the first part of Mendeleev’s life teach us? _ / 15 130 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 877310 _ 0124-0131.qxd 14 4/8/08 12:38 Página 131 TEST 14 ATOMS AND ELEMENTS NAME: CLASS: DATE: Circle the correct answer Atomic numbers indicate the number of: (a) electrons (b) neutrons (c) protons in an atom The smallest part of an element is (a) an atom (b) a molecule (c) a nucleus Noble gases always (a) form molecules (b) exist as single atoms (c) combine among themselves The noble gases are helium, neon, argon, krypton, radon and (a) boron (b) xenon (c) silicon The most abundant element in the Universe is (a) helium (b) oxygen (c) hydrogen The most abundant element in the Earth’s crust is (a) helium (b) oxygen (c) hydrogen The basis of all organic compounds is (a) carbon (b) nitrogen (c) hydrogen CaCO3 is the compound that is found in sea shells and egg shells It is (a) calcium oxide (b) calcium chloride (c) calcium carbonate At room temperature, chlorine is a (a) gas (b) liquid (c) solid 10 This element is used in the composition of fireworks: (a) sodium (b) magnesium (c) potassium Read the text and answer the questions Calcium Calcium is a soft grey metal which does not occur as an element in nature, where it exists only in compounds It is found in sedimentary rocks like gypsum and limestone Limestone is often composed of the organic remains of sea animals and for this reason it is rich in calcium Interestingly, when subjected to heat and pressure, limestone becomes the metamorphic rock, marble, which of course also contains calcium Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and the most common element in the human body 99 % of it is found in bones and teeth In this respect, it has been shown that cola drinks, which are rich in caffeine, sugar and phosphorus, cause significant calcium loss through the urine and could even lead to osteoporosis (brittle bones) in children and adolescents Briefly describe calcium What cola drinks contain a lot of? Why is it dangerous to drink excessive quantities of them? Find the opposite of the following words in the text a hard: b poor: c cold: d unimportant: e scarce: f flexible: _ / 20 ࡯ ESSENTIAL NATURAL SCIENCE ࡯ PHOTOCOPIABLE MATERIAL © 2008 Richmond Publishing / Santillana Educación, S.L ࡯ 131 877310 _ 0132-0136.qxd 4/8/08 15:55 Página 132 Vocabulary The Universe asteroids rocky bodies which orbit the stars astronomical unit the distance from the Earth to the Sun: approximately 150 million kilometres galaxies a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held together by gravitational attraction geocentric theory proposed that the Earth was the centre of the Universe heliocentric theory proposed that the Sun was at the centre of the Universe light-year the distance light travels in one year: about 9.5 trillion km Milky Way the galaxy where our Solar System is orbit a curved path which a celestial body follows in its revolution around another celestial body Planet Earth atmosphere the layer of gases which envelops the Earth Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant biosphere the part of the Earth’s surface, sea and air that is inhabited by living things core the centre of the Earth, below the mantle Its temperature is over 4,000°C crust the outer layer of the Earth’s surface It is divided into continental crust and oceanic crust equinox the time of the year when day and night are exactly the same length geosphere the solid part of the Earth which includes the lithosphere, the mantle and the core hydrosphere all the water on Earth lithosphere the upper 100 km of the geosphere It is is made up of the crust and the upper mantle lunar eclipse when the Moon passes behind the Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight from reaching the Moon mantle the middle layer of the Earth, below the crust It is made up of rock The temperature is from 1,000 to 4,000ºC, so some areas are melted rock revolution the elliptical path taken by one body around another The Earth revolves around the Sun rotation the Earth rotates on its axis The axis is tilted 23.5 degrees This rotation creates day and night solar eclipse when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and blocks off the sunlight 132 water cycle the movement of water around, over, and through the Earth: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, surface runoff and infiltration Living things autotrophs living things which produce the organic substances they need from inorganic substances Plants, algae and some bacteria are autotrophs cell membrane the outer covering of a cell The cell membrane keeps the cell together and controls what passes in and out of it chloroplasts organelles with a green pigment, chlorophyll, which absorbs the Sun’s energy to elaborate organic matter during photosynthesis cytoplasm the inside of a cell where many of the chemical reactions take place eukaryotic cells cells which have a nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane heterotrophs living things which obtain nutrition from organic matter which is already elaborated Animals, fungi, and all protozoa are heterotrophs inorganic substances things which contain no carbon They are present in living things and nonliving things: water and mineral salts organelles small structures in the cytoplasm responsible for respiration, making and storing nutrients, etc organic substances substances exclusive to living things Carbon is the principal element Organic substances include: glucides, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids nutrition all the processes which enable living things to obtain the energy and matter they need to live photosynthesis the process through which plants obtain nutrition prokaryotic cells cells with no nucleus or nuclear membrane Genetic material is dispersed throughout the cytoplasm They are simpler than eukaryotic cells species the first level of classification for living things A group of living things which are physically similar They reproduce and usually have fertile descendants 877310 _ 0132-0136.qxd 4/8/08 15:55 Página 133 Invertebrates annelids invertebrates with soft, cylindrical bodies divided into segments, with organs in each segment Most breathe through gills arthropods the largest and most varied group of living things: more than one million species They live in sea water, fresh water and on land cephalopods a group of molluscs They have tentacles, but no shell For example: squid, cuttlefish and octopus cnidaria jellyfish, corals and sea anemones They have a soft body, with only one opening and a mouth surrounded by tentacles crustaceans a group of arthropods with 10 legs, with usually an aquatic habitat For example: lobster or crab echinoderms invertebrate animals which live on the sea bed For example, sea urchins, starfish and sea cucumbers gastropods a group of molluscs Gastropods have a spiral-shaped shell with a single valve For example, snails, sea snails and slugs Slugs have no shell molluscs a group of invertebrate animals with a soft body divided into head, body mass and foot For example, squid, mussels, oysters, slugs and snails myriapods a group of arthropods with worm-like bodies and many legs They are terrestrial For example, centipede and scolopendra oviparous animals that lay eggs Eggs are laid by the female and develop outside the body platyhelminths invertebrates with long, flat, soft bodies They have neither legs nor respiratory or digestive systems Many are parasites polyp cnidaria bodies shaped like a tube with the opening at the top For example, corals and sea anemones porifera invertebrate animals without organs Sponges belong to this group Vertebrates amphibians vertebrate animals Their skin is moist and has no covering They have four legs and are poikilothermal They undergo metamorphosis homeotherms warm-blooded animals: capable of keeping their body temperature constant mammals a group of vertebrate animals Their bodies are covered with hair or fur They are homeothermal and have mammary glands ovoviviparous animals that are born from an egg The egg develops inside the female poikilotherms cold-blooded animals They cannot regulate their body temperature, so are warm or cold depending on the environment reptiles vertebrate animals with bodies covered with hard scales They are poikilothermal and most of them are oviparous and carnivorous viviparous animals that give birth to live young Development starts in the mother’s body The babies feed on the mother’s milk The plant and fungi kingdoms angiosperm flowering plants which have seeds inside a real fruit dispersal a stage of plant reproduction The ripe fruit falls off the plant or releases the seeds ferns small non-flowering plants Ferns are vascular They have roots, stems, and leaves called fronds fertilisation a stage of plant reproduction Pollen reaches the stigma, penetrates it, and fertilises the ovules inside the ovary fungi have eukaryotic cells and are heterotrophic Fungi are made up of hyphae, which group together to form the mycelium germination the last stage of plant reproduction Seeds germinate producing a tiny shoot and root gymnosperm one kind of flowering plant They have seeds inside a false fruit, like a pinecone mosses small, non-flowering plants They are nonvascular They have no true roots, stems or leaves pollination the first stage of plant reproduction Wind and insects transport pollen from one flower to another stomata microscopic pores on the underside of a leaf transpiration process by which excess water is expelled through leaf stomata in the form of water vapour vascular plants with conductor vessels to distribute water and nutrients yeasts unicellular fungi Some types are used to make bread, wine, beer, etc The simplest living things algae unicellular or multicellular autotrophs They live in salt and fresh water bacteria microscopic, prokaryotic organisms They belong to the Monera kingdom 133 877310 _ 0132-0136.qxd ciliates 4/8/08 15:55 Página 134 a group of protozoa with hair-like organs flagellates one of the groups of protozoa They move with a flagellum (tail) protoctist unicellular and multicellular living things They are eukaryotes and have no tissues The Protoctist kingdom includes protozoa and algae protozoa unicellular and heterotrophic living things Some are parasites, and cause illnesses rhizopods protozoa with pseudopods (projections of the cell cytoplasm) saprophytes organisms which live on dead or decomposing matter They transform organic substances into inorganic substances sporozoa a group of protozoa that cannot move vaccines contain dead or weakened microorganisms from a specific illness They teach the body how to fight an illness The Earth’s atmosphere The hydrosphere condensation the process in which water vapour changes to liquid currents movement of large bodies of water by prevailing winds evaporation the process of the water cycle in which liquid water changes to a gas (water vapour) evapotranspiration when water evaporates into the atmosphere from the leaves and stems of plants groundwater water located beneath the ground infiltration surface water penetrates into the ground This occurs more easily if the ground is porous surface runoff when the movement of surface water across the land forms rivers and streams tides the rise and fall of water levels due to gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun waves occur on the surface of water, caused by the wind Wave action causes cliff erosion and creates beaches Minerals acid rain rain with dissolved pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide 10 climate describes the characteristic pattern of weather in an area, over a long period of time hardness measures how a mineral reacts to being scratched impurities small amounts of other substances found in minerals These can change some mineral properties lustre refers to the way minerals reflect light It can be metallic, or non-metalic mixtures are made up of different substances of varying sizes, shapes and colours Mohs Scale of Hardness classifies minerals by hardness One is soft Ten is the hardest non-silicates minerals which contain no silicon: native elements, oxides, sulphides, carbonates and halides silicates the most abundant minerals on Earth They are made up of silicon and oxygen Some common silicates are quartz and feldspar streak the colour of the powder left when minerals are scratched global warming in the last century, the atmosphere has warmed between 0.5 and 0.9ºC on average greenhouse effect a natural phenomenon, essential for keeping the temperatures on Earth suitable for life CO2 in the atmosphere acts like the glass walls of a greenhouse It traps the heat and prevents it from returning into space ionosphere the highest and thickest layer of the atmosphere mesosphere a layer of the atmosphere about 40 km thick It contains clouds of ice and dust meteorology the study of different atmospheric variables to make weather predictions ozone (O3) a gas which exists throughout the atmosphere, mainly concentrated in the stratosphere It makes up the ozone layer stratosphere a layer of the atmosphere about 30 km thick There is an increase in temperature from –70ºC at its lower limit, to 0ºC at its higher limit troposphere a very thin layer which represents 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere Aeroplanes fly at this level It is where the greenhouse effect is produced weather describes the state of atmospheric conditions at a certain place, over a short period of time 134 11 Rocks cementation the process by which sedimentary rock is formed from sediments glued together compaction the weight of layers of sediments which reduces the spaces between the fragments and squeezes out the water As a result, salt crystals are formed 877310 _ 0132-0136.qxd 4/8/08 15:55 Página 135 erosion fragments of rocks are picked up and transported by running water, glaciers, or wind igneous rocks rocks formed from cooled magma metamorphic rocks rocks formed from other rocks by the effects of heat or pressure metamorphism a slow process in which temperature and pressure change parent rock into metamorphic rock organic sedimentary rocks made up of organic material, fossils There are two kinds: oil and coal plutonic (intrusive) rocks rocks formed as magma cools slowly under the ground over thousands of years rock cycle the processes which form, change and recycle rocks over millions of years sedimentary rocks rocks formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediment, for example, clay, sand or rock fragments volcanic (extrusive) rocks rocks formed as lava cools rapidly on the Earth’s surface weathering atmospheric phenomena (changes in temperature, rain, etc.), or the activities of plants and animals which break up rocks 12 Matter and its properties base units used to measure length, mass, time, etc capacity the amount of liquid a container can hold when it is full Capacity is measured in litres (L) degrees Celsius a scale used to measure temperature 0ºC equals 273.15K or 32ºF density the relationship between the mass and the volume of a body Measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3 derived units obtained from a combination of the base units They are used to measure surface area, volume, speed, density, etc International System of Units (SI) a system which defines the base and derived units required to measure the properties of matter kelvin one of the scales of the International System of Units that is used to measure temperature K equals –273.15ºC and –459.67ºF mass the amount of matter in a body Mass is measured in kilograms (kg) matter all objects that take up space, and have mass Everything around us is made of matter surface area the extension of a body in two dimensions, measured in square metres (m2) volume the amount of space matter occupies Volume is measured in cubic metres (m3) 13 Everything is matter chemical compound a substance containing two or more elements joined up compressibility a property which measures the difficulty of matter to be compressed fusion the process by which a solid changes into a liquid heterogeneous a mixture of substances where more than one part is distinguishable homogeneous a substance which is uniform in structure and composition recycle to transform used materials into new materials regressive sublimation the process by which a gas changes directly into a solid solidification the process by which a liquid is cooled and changes to a solid solute in a mixture, the dissolved substance solution any homogeneous mixture solvent in a mixture, the part where the substance is dissolved sublimation the process by which a solid changes into a gas, without first becoming a liquid vaporisation when a liquid evaporates into a gas 14 Atoms and elements atom the smallest particle of matter which can exist alone It is made up of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, and electrons atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom This number is different for each atom chemical formula symbols which indicate how many atoms make up a molecule crystals consist of atoms or molecules arranged in a regular, organised structure electrons extremely small particles that orbit the nucleus They have a negative charge (–) and are attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus element a substance that contains just one type of atom It cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical reaction molecules two or more atoms joined together neutrons particles in the nucleus which have no charge periodic table of elements a table in which all elements are grouped with similar elements, with their symbol and atomic number protons particles in the atom’s nucleus, which have a positive charge 135 877310 _ 0132-0136.qxd 18/9/08 15:24 Página 136 Essential Natural Science, Teacher’s Resource Pack Pack is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education department at Santillana, under the supervision of Enric Juan Redal, Antonio Brandi and Michele C Guerrini Contributing authors: Mady Musiol, Concha Barreiro, Marcos Blanco, Esperanza Blanco, Antonio Brandi, José María Cabello, José Manuel Cerezo, Antonio Delgado, Jesús Diéguez, David Folkers, Belén Garrido, Pilar de Luis, Patricia Gómez, Samuel Jiménez, Miguel Ángel Madrid, Ignacio Meléndez, Margarita Montes, Patrizia Pierantoni and Cristina Zarzuelo Content consultants: Kevin Salvage and Carmen Rengel Language specialists: María José Sánchez, María Rosa Batlle, Giselle Dubois, Beatriz Papaseit and Ana María Pons English editors: Sheila Tourle, Cynthia Donson, Sheila Klaiber, Jonathan Mellor, Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish Student CD: Vocabulary organiser: Antonio Delgado Web tasks: Jeannette West PowerPoints: Marcos Blanco, Jeannette West and Javier Claramonte Webquests: Isabel Pérez, Librotex Art director: José Crespo Design coordinator: Rosa Marín Design Team: Cover: Martín León-Barreto Interior: Rosa María Barriga Coordinator, design development: Javier Tejeda Design development: José Luis García and Raúl de Andrés Technical director: Ángel García Encinar Technical coordinator: Marisa Valbuena Layout: Montytexto, Juana Berrio, Pedro Valencia, Jorge Borrego, Antonio Díaz Artwork coordinator: Carlos Aguilera Illustrations: alademosca il·lustració, Digitalartis, Marcelo Pérez, Pere Luis León, David Cabacas, Domingo Benito, Carlos Aguilera Research and photographic selection: Amparo Rodríguez Photographs: A Viñas; C Jiménez; C Suárez; D Sánchez; F Orte; GARCÍA-PELAYO/Juancho; I Rovira; J C Muñoz/'Instituto Geológico y Minero de España'; J I Medina; J Jaime; J M Gil-Carles; J Navarro; J Soler; L M Iglesias; M San Félix; Prats i Camps; R Tolín; S Padura; TERRANOVA INTERPRETACIÓN Y GESTIÓN AMBIENTAL; V Rivera; A G E FOTOSTOCK/Sinclair Stammers, Fritz Poelking, Edward Kinsman; POPPERFOTO; COVER; EFE/EPA/Armin Weigel; EFE/AP PHOTO/I UNDATED FILE PHOTO; EFE/SIPA-PRESS/C Burmester, S Korb; HIGHRES PRESS STOCK/AbleStock.com; I Preysler; ISTOCKPHOTO; J M.ª Barres; JOHN FOXX IMAGES; LOBO PRODUCCIONES / C Sanz; MELBA AGENCY; MUSEUM ICONOGRAFÍA/J Martin; PHOTODISC; STOCKBYTE; AGRAZ S A.; MATTON-BILD; SERIDEC PHOTOIMAGENES CD; ARCHIVO SANTILLANA The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the following teachers for their insightful comments and useful suggestions throughout the preparation of Essential Natural Science Carlos Álvarez Santos (Liceo Zuloaga); Silvia Durán (SEK-El Castillo); José Ramón Noya (Liceo Zuloaga); Maureen Vidal Gafford © 2008 by Santillana Educación, S L / Richmond Publishing Torrelaguna, 60 28043 Madrid Richmond Publishing is an imprint of Santillana Educación, S L Richmond Publishing 26-28 Hammersmith Grove London W6 7BA United Kingdom PRINTED IN SPAIN Printed in Spain FAS - S A - Digital ISBN: 978-84-294-2223-8 CP: 877310 D.L.: M-43210-2008 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher