A Brief History of Argentina Second Edition Jonathan C Brown University of Texas at Austin A Brief History of Argentina, Second Edition Copyright © 2010, 2003 by Lexington Associates All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brown, Jonathan C (Jonathan Charles), 1942– A brief history of Argentina / Jonathan C Brown — 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8160-7796-0 Argentina—History I Title F2831.B88 2010 982—dc22 2010004887 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Excerpts included herewith have been reprinted by permission of the copyright holders; the author has made every effort to contact copyright holders The publishers will be glad to rectify, in future editions, any errors or omissions brought to their notice Text design by Joan M McEvoy Maps and figures by Dale Williams and Patricia Meschino Composition by Mary Susan Ryan-Flynn Cover printed by Art Print, Taylor, Pa Book printed and bound by Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group, York, Pa Date printed: June 2010 Printed in the United States of America 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  This book is printed on acid-free paper Contents List of Illustrations iv List of Maps v List of Tables and Charts v Acknowledgments vii Introduction: The Argentine Riddle ix    1   Ancient Argentina and the European Encounter    2   The Colonial Río de la Plata 27    3   Imperial Reform and Conflict in the Río de la Plata 51    4   Crisis of the Colonial Order and Revolution 79    5   Agrarian Expansion and Nation Building (1820–1880) 103    6   The Liberal Age (1880–1916) 138    7   The Decline of Liberalism (1916–1930) 167    8   The Rise of Populism (1930–1955) 188    9   The Failure of De-Peronization (1955–1983) 218   10   The Neoliberal Age Begins 253   11   Argentina on the Rebound? 275   12   Conclusion: History as Predator 296 Appendixes    1   Basic Facts about Argentina 302    2   Chronology 306    3   Bibliography 315    4   Suggested Reading 328 Index 338 List of illustrations Basilica of Salta Adolfo Cambiaso Ruins of a Diaguita Village Indigenous people of the Gran Chaco The Charrúa Buenos Aires, ca 1536 Mule train crossing Bolivian cordillera Women working in Santiago del Estero Plaza of Mendoza An indigenous toldería Buenos Aires, ca late 18th century Mounted indigenous warriors of the Pampas Indigenous chief, or cacique José de San Martín A saladero Cattle branding on an estancia A portrait of General Rosas on a bedroom wall Indigenous raid on a cart train Immigrant housing in Buenos Aires, ca 1910 Gauchesque musicians today Rural woman with montero Criollos of the countryside Buenos Aires, ca early 20th century Train station on Western Argentine Railway Crowd cheers September 1930 coup Demonstrators at National Congress, September 1930 Carlos Gardel Pro-Perón demonstration, October 17, 1945 Juan and Evita Perón addressing a 1947 rally Striking rail workers, 1953 Pro-Lonardi demonstrators A villa miseria in Buenos Aires The Cordobazo, May 1969 Marching Montoneros, May 1973 iv cover xii 13 15 21 28 35 36 49 52 54 57 98 107 117 123 132 151 156 160 163 169 176 185 187 191 204 207 211 215 228 231 235 El Proceso junta members Mothers of Plaza de Mayo, 1983 Argentine troops in the Malvinas Argentine medics in the Islas Malvinas Members of Carapintada commando unit, 1987 Looted supermarket, 1989 Raúl Alfonsín and Carlos Saúl Menem, July 1989 Demonstrators at Salta, 1997 “The Night of the Saucepans,” December 2001 Inauguration of President Fernández Piqueteros at the Plaza de Mayo Farmers’ strike of 2008 240 246 248 250 258 263 264 271 273 280 286 293 List of MAPs Modern Argentina Indigenous Peoples of the Southern Cone on the Eve of   the Conquest The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, 1790 Buenos Aires Autopistas Planned by the Military Government   of the Late 1970s and Early 1980s 11 65 242 List of tables and charts Estimated Population of Indigenous Peoples of the Southern Cone, 1492 Population Estimates for Buenos Aires, 1615–1770 Slaves and Livestock on the Jesuit Ranches of Córdoba, ca 1748 The Racial Composition of the Population of Mendoza, 1812 Yearly Tax Revenues of the Royal Treasury in Buenos Aires, 1770–1808 Population Growth in Colonial Argentina, 1777–1809 v 46 60 67 69 75 Destination of Ships Leaving the Port of Buenos Aires, 1849–1851 Rural Population in Buenos Aires Province, 1854 Indicators of Economic Growth in Argentina, 1880–1914 Cargo and Passengers Carried on Argentine Railways, 1880–1914 Major Argentine Grain Exports, 1880–1915 Spanish and Italian Immigration to Argentina, 1880–1930 Nationality of Foreigners Residing in Argentina, 1914 Population of the City of Buenos Aires, 1914–1936 Argentine Petroleum Consumption, Production, and Imports, 1922–1930 Growth of Manufacturing within Argentina’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 1900–1955 Growth of the Argentine Oil Industry, 1922–1940 Price Inflation, 1945–1984 Expansion and Contraction of Gross Domestic Product, 1956–1980 Price Inflation in Argentina, 1980–2001 Expansion and Contraction of Gross Domestic Product, 1981–2001 Gross External Debt, 1977–2001 China’s Trade with Argentina, 2001–2007 Argentina’s Economic Growth and Inflation Rates,   1999–2010 vi 108 116 142 144 145 149 150 151 183 194 195 223 227 266 268 270 289 292 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have benefited immensely from a wealth of literature on the history of Argentina in both Spanish and English The Argentines have developed one of the most lively and professional historical traditions in Latin America, and they have a talent for seeing themselves with clarity and wisdom They practice their studies at a number of fine institutions of higher learning and research institutes both in Argentina and abroad Moreover, the Argentine historical community has welcomed foreign scholars to its archives and libraries so that the English-language literature ranks among the richest for any country of Latin America In addition, my students and former students assist me—indeed, they challenge me—in staying on top of the latest research They themselves have contributed five doctoral dissertations and 19 master’s research projects about Argentine history that have enriched my knowledge and understanding of that country They will recognize in these pages where I am beholden to their research I owe special thanks to Joan Supplee, Gil Ramírez, Ricardo Salvatore, Rukhsana Qamber, Greg Hammond, and Adrian Hawkins for their doctoral work Among those who have turned out fine master’s projects are Kevin Kelly, Barbara Boczek, John Rochford, Andrea Spears, Lisa Cox, Barbara Pierce, Alfredo Poenitz, Yao-Sung Hsiao, Matthew Faddis, Wayne Magnusson, Jesús Gómez, Byron Crites, Cyrus Cousins, Jen Hoyt, Sabina Mora, Brian Teplica, Peter Toot, and Josie Engels I am indebted to María Celina Tuozzo for her keen insights on Argentine labor history Michael Snodgrass graciously permitted me to draw from his superb analysis, especially on the relationship between Juan Perón and his working-class followers, which appears in chapter In Buenos Aires, I profited from the expert assistance of Daniel V Santilli of the Instituto de Historia Argentina y Americana “Dr E Ravignani.” He searched among several different sources in Buenos Aires to find many of the illustrations that grace this book During the past decade, I have corresponded frequently with Torcuato Di Tella, Ricardo Salvatore, and Cuatro Tolson, who keep me abreast of events I benefited also from the Reuters news dispatches from Argentina vii A Brief History of argentina that were written by a former student, Brian Winter In addition, Gil Ramírez has shared jokes and insights over the years, and Byron Crites donated a critical labor document Li He gave me the statistics on Chinese-Argentine trade; Jen Hoyt and Cyrus Cousins contributed photos and illustrations I have been fortunate to have had the advice and counsel of my own in-house editor and muse, Lynore Brown Finally, Josie Engels served as my research assistant for this second edition Her attention to detail keeps me informed of the most important twists in Argentina’s current events Unless otherwise noted, translations that appear in this book are my own All the above contributed to making this a better book, though they cannot be faulted for its shortcomings viii Introduction: The Argentine Riddle J ust a year ago, when I accepted the commission to update A Brief History of Argentina, I thought that I would be able to finish the second edition on a positive note The first edition had concluded with an analysis of the 2001 economic crisis, during which the country defaulted on its foreign debt, citizens lost about two-thirds of their bank deposits, and four different presidents served in the last two weeks of December Last year, the Argentine economy had rebounded and was producing annual growth rates of percent Then bad news hit Argentina Wall Street suffered a near financial collapse, and world markets began to purchase fewer Argentine agricultural products As President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner said, “We were registering the most important growth in the last 200 years when suddenly the world appeared and it complicated our lives” (Wiñazki) Today’s crisis does not appear to be replicating the 2001 episode, for so far it is producing fewer dislocations Nonetheless, the present-day riches-to-rags story, in fact, has so many historical precedents, it always brings up the same question: What’s wrong with Argentina? Their fellow Latin Americans like to tell a joke about the Argentines “Would you like to know how to become rich overnight?” they ask “It’s quite simple Just buy an Argentine for what he’s worth and sell him for what he thinks he’s worth.” The joke, often repeated among Argentines themselves, seems to sum up one aspect of the “Argentine Riddle.” The country once had one of the most vibrant economies in the world In the 1920s, Argentines compared themselves favorably to France in terms of economic wealth and individual well-being Children of the Argentine landowning class were known in London and Paris as the original jetsetters of the early 20th century Now, Argentines count themselves among the underdeveloped nations of the world Great-grandchildren of European immigrants now seek to repatriate themselves to the homelands of their great-grandparents Argentines themselves are deeply disappointed about the supposed gap between the country’s possibilities and its intractable problems, such as economic boom ix A Brief History of argentina cartoneros 287 cart trains 35–36, 42 Carulla, Juan E 174 Casa Rosada x, 185, 193, 203– 204, 218, 221, 246, 259, 273, 276, 294 caserola movement 285, 294 Caseros, battle of 127 cassava 5, 9, 14, 58 Castillo, Ramón S 192–193 Castro, Fidel 221, 261, 267, 312c Catholic Action organization 205, 213, 232, 233, 299, 311c Catholic Church, the 61, 81, 205, 284, 311c church-state relations and 70–71, 213, 311c Perón and 205, 213 Catholicism 28, 31, 39, 61 See also Catholic Church, the; Jesuits cattle 29, 31, 38, 46, 48–49, 53, 55–56, 60, 71, 75, 94, 106, 130–134, 146–148 cattle industry 48, 111–114, 121, 122, 135, 177 cattle branding 29, 76, 77, 116, 117 cattle by-products 111, 114 cattle raising 45–47, 51, 58, 76–77, 93, 109, 146–147, 159, 174–175, 177, 288 cattle-slaughtering 74, 75, 77, 111 cattlemen 31–32, 34, 45, 76, 77, 112, 115, 177 See also gauchos cattle ranches See estancias caudillos 93–95, 96, 103, 104– 107, 232, 235, 299 age of 309c–310c political unrest and 119–120 violence in the era of 125, 126 cautivas 134–135 Cavallo, Domingo 264, 266, 269, 272–273 cavalries 54 Central Bank 266 centralism 96, 122, 127, 141, 276 See also Unitarians Cepeda, Battle of 128 cereal crops 143, 159, 275, 289 CGT (General Labor Confederation) 203, 206, 207, 208, 219, 261 Chacabuco 97 Chaco Indians, the 12–15, 13, 49–50, 70 Chaco War xi, 196 Chamber of Deputies See Congress Charrúa, the 15–17, 15, 20, 23, 306c Chávez, Hugo 280, 281, 290 Che See Guevara, Ernesto “Che” che, origin of the term 154–155, 156 Chicago School of Economics 264, 266 the Chicha chicha 7, 9, 14, 53 chieftains 7, 8, 10, 12, 23, 50, 54–55, 57, 299, 308c See also caciques children abandonment of 164 cautivas 134–135 Creole 164 education of 153–154 indigenous 18, 55 Chile 134, 228, 250, 256, 266– 267, 280, 290 in the colonial era 29, 36, 40, 46, 53, 81, 307c liberation of 97–98, 309c population of 3t precolonial 1, 8–9 trade with 36–37, 74, 290 Chileans 101 China 275, 289, 289t, 290 chiripás 121 Christianity 39 See also Catholicism Chrysler 225 Chubut River x church, the See Catholic Church, the chusma 203 citizenship 79 Citroën 225, 232 civil disobedience 216–217 civil wars 80, 105, 106, 107, 111, 125, 301 class xii, xiii, 124, 136, 188 See also specific classes authoritarianism and 298–299 in Buenos Aires 66 in the colonial era 52, 56–58, 77, 84–85, 89, 91 economic crisis of 2008 and 294 elections and 215–217 immigration and 163–166 landed v landless 157–162 during the liberal age 157–162, 163–166 race and 120, 158, 297–298 under Rosas 126 clergy 86, 233 Clinton, Bill 267 clothing 66, 73, 156 clubs 10 coal 157, 175, 180 coca leaf Cochrane, Lord 97 coke 157 College of Jesuits See Jesuits Colombia 64, 100, 102 Colônia Sacramento, Uruguay 61, 62–63, 74, 82, 93, 307c, 308c colonial era, the xi, 4, 27–102, 296–297, 299, 300–301 340 administration during 52, 63–64, 68–70 Bourbon Reforms and 63–64 church-state relations in the 70–71 colonial militias 63, 68, 82–84, 88 crisis of colonial order 79–102 imperial decapitalization 81 social control and 39 Spanish dependence on the colonies 80–81 Colorado River 55 Colorados (crimsons) 220 Colorados del Monte 124 Columbus, Christopher 20, 306c Comechingón, the 32–33, 33, 307c comerciantes 85 commerce See financial sector; merchants; trade communism 243 communists 201, 202, 254 Comodoro Rivadavia 177, 180 comuneros 61, 62, 307c concubines 58 Confederación General del Trabajo (General Labor Confederation) 200–201 Congress 168, 212, 218, 220, 256–257, 267, 275, 278, 282, 293–294, 314c Conquest of the Desert 132–133, 135, 141, 159, 310c Conservative Party 168, 177, 191, 192, 200, 310c conservatives 167–168, 173, 176, 180, 189 consolidation 136, 138 constitutions 126 of 1853 103–104, 127, 128, 131, 136, 256, 263, 267, 309c Constitution of 1853 309c construction 115, 199, 200 consumer goods 29, 119, 156, 157, 175 contras, the 246 contratistas 162 convertibility plan 266, 272, 288, 313c copper 14, 290 Córdoba, Argentina x, 90, 94, 107, 124, 164, 225, 229, 297, 301 automobile industry in 231 as capital of Río de la Plata 32 cattlemen of 31–32, 34 in the colonial era 29, 36, 47, 55 Cordobazo in 230–231, 231, 232, 312c founding of 307c hardliners in 246–247 hides from 121 Jesuit ranches in 60, 60t, 307c index October 17, 1945 strike in 203 population of 308c slavery in 40, 41 trade and 119–120 wool from 121 Córdoba mountains 8, 10 Córdoba Province, Argentina 160, 162, 177, 221 Cordobazo 230, 231, 232, 312c corn 5, 6, 7, 9, 29, 58, 162, 289 corporations, multinational 224–225, 235, 312c corralito 277, 288 Correa, Deolinda 105 Corrientes, Argentina 29, 74, 307c Corrientes Province, Argentina 117, 121, 130, 160, 259 corruption 166, 184, 188, 198– 199, 252, 277–278, 296 in the colonial era 41–43 during the colonial era 80, 86 during de-Peronization 222 impunity and 298–300 under Kirchner 281 in the liberal age 143 link between colonial and postcolonial 299 neoliberalism and 268–272 under Perón 209–210, 213, 215 cost of living 157, 171, 201, 231 See also prices cotton 73 Council of Castile (Consejo de Castilla) 90 counterinsurgency 243–245 coups d’etat See military coups courts See judiciary cowboys 93 See also cattlemen; gauchos Creoles 109, 120, 154, 163–166, 296, 299 See also criollos Bolivians 91 in the colonial era 38, 52, 64, 72, 75, 77–78, 80, 82–84, 86–88 Creole consciousness 84–87 economic resurgence of 85–86 federalism and 94 immigrants and 157–158 investments by 110 as leaders of the revolution 88–89, 90, 92, 93 of Lima 99 loyalist 94 as militia leaders 82–84 Peruvians 99, 101 resurgence of power 79 revolution and 88–89, 91–92 San Martín and 99 slaves 99 Uruguayan 91 crime 200, 275 crimes against humanity See human rights abuses criollo politics 141, 168, 188 criollos 162, 163–166, 163, 199, 200–201, 228, 298 See also Creoles crisis of 1829 124 crops See specific crops Cruz, Luis de la 18 Cuba 108–109, 234, 253 Cuban Revolution 234 cultivation 9, 147 culture x, xi See also specific cultures currency 110, 112–113, 222–224, 231, 262, 266, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 288, 313c customs duties 72, 120, 128, 139, 140, 195, 307c D dams dance See tango Darwin, Charles 111, 131, 309c debt 110, 241–242, 246, 261– 262, 299, 301, 309c, 313c 1977–2001 270t under Alfonsín 253 under Cacciatorre 241–243 under de la Rúa 272–273 under Galtieri 247 under Kirchner 291 under Menem 264, 270–271 decrees of necessity and urgency 278 defense 63, 68, 82, 195, 252 See also military, the; militias deficits 220, 253, 261, 270–271, 272 degüello 125 de la Rúa, Fernando 272–273, 276, 277, 313c D’Elía, Luis 278, 285–286, 294 democracy 251, 252, 255 demographics 86 See also class; gender; population; race demonstrations 273, 276 See also strikes in 1997 272 the Cordobazo 231, 232, 312c by montoneros 235 Night of the Saucepans 272, 273 of October 17, 1945 204, 285, 311c of the unemployed 271, 272, 277, 285–287, 286, 313c at University of Buenos Aires 234 de-Peronization 218–253, 254, 267, 301, 312c depressions of 1891–1895 149 the Great Depression 184–187, 193, 194, 275 descamisados 205, 212, 298 Descartes, René 86 341 Desert Storm 267 desparecidos 244, 245–246, 246, 252–257, 281–283, 299, 314c Diaguita, the 5–8, 6, 9, 31–32, 306c Díaz de Solís, Juan 21, 306c Difunta Correa, La 105, 310c Dirty War, the xiii, 243–247, 252–254, 260–261, 263, 299– 301, 313c–314c detention centers 245 ghosts of 281–284 officer corps and 256–258 witnesses of 283 disappeared, the See desparecidos discrimination xii, xiii, 112, 154, 188, 200, 296–298, 301 See also racism; social inequities disease 24 See also specific diseases Di Tella, Torcuato 175, 197, 199 Dobrizhoffer, Martin 47 dollarization 277 Dorrego, Manuel 124, 309c droughts of 1830 116 of 1951 210 of 1952 210 of 2008 294 Due Obedience Law 257, 259, 281, 282 Duhalde, Eduardo 273–274, 276–278, 289, 313c Duhalde, Hilda “Chiche” 278 DuPont 224 Dutch, the 42, 44–45 E Echeverría, Esteban 126 economic nationalism 174–178, 179–184, 191–192, 195–196, 205, 208–209, 225 economics xiii, 142t, 142–144, 145t, 168, 174–178, 225–226, 289t, 300–301 of the 18th century 51, 64, 67–68, 71–74 of the 19th century 106–107, 110, 149, 310c of the 1920s 174–178 of the 1930s 184–187, 188 of the 1950s 210–211, 213 of the 1960s 222–227, 227t, 230 of the 1970s and 1980s 247 in the 1990s 267, 268t of 1999 313c of 2001–2002 ix, 274, 275, 277 of 2008 ix, 292–295 under Alfonsín 261–264 contraction 210–211, 213, 222–227, 247, 272, 313c crisis of 1893 310c crisis of 1966 230, 230 crisis of 2001–2002 ix, 274, 275, 277 A Brief History of argentina crisis of 2008 ix, 292–295 crisis of World War I 171, 310c depression of 1891–1895 149 during the Dirty War 245 dynamic stagnation 222–227, 227t dynamism 188–189, 222–227, 227t expansion of the 18th century 51, 64, 67–68, 71–74 financial panic of 1826 110 Great Depression 184–187, 193, 194 growth 51, 64, 67–68, 71–74, 103–104, 107–110, 135–136, 138–139, 142– 144, 142t, 148, 206–207, 225–226, 267, 268t, 281, 292t, 300–301 immigration and 148–156 of the interior 119–122 under Isabel Perón 238 of the liberal age 138–139, 142–148, 142t, 145t manufacturing 194t under Menem 264–267, 268t neoliberal 253–254, 264–267 under Perón 206–207, 237 politics and 281 populism and 222–224, 253 recession of 1952 210–211, 213 recession of 1999 313c recovery 288–291 reform 261–267, 268t regime change and 225–226 ruin in the 19th century 106–107 stagnation 222–227, 227t, 230, 265 tax and spend mentality 291–295 technological change and b of World War I 171, 310c Ecuador 60, 64, 97, 100, 101, 102, 280 education x, xi, 86, 153–154, 170 Eisenhower, Dwight x elections 313c of 1916 168 of 1932 311c of 1938 191, 192, 311c of 1946 311c of 1958 219, 312c of 1963 220, 312c of 1973 312c of 1983 313c of 1989 262–263, 313c of 1995 267 of 1999 273 of 2003 277–278 of 2007 280–281 electoral system 103, 138–139, 167, 199 electoral fraud 199 electoral reforms 167, 189, 310c electricity x, 153, 209, 222 El gaucho Martín Fierro (Hernández) xi, 155, 310c elites 52, 92, 103–104, 168, 172, 179, 192, 216, 234–235, 276, 294, 296 authoritarianism and 298–299 Bolivian 92 in the colonial era 63, 68, 86 culture of 203 economic nationalism and 175 economic progress and 158–159 election of 1916 and 168 Great Britain and 170 Great Depression and 184 immigrants and 157–158 labor and 173 in the liberal age 138–139, 141–143, 148, 154 during the liberal age 157–162 under Menem 267 military and 131 officer corps and 165–166 oil industry and 179, 182 Perón and 205, 208 Peruvian 101 porteño 124 Radical Party and 167 of the riparian provinces 127 Rosas and 123, 124, 126 rural population and 120 trade and 131 unrest of 87–88 working class and 157–162 working-class violence and 171 El Proceso 240–243, 240, 244, 246, 253 emerging markets 288, 289t, 290 emphyteusis 112 employment xii, 195, 210, 232, 295 encomiendas 25 energy 175, 179–184, 265 Enlightenment, the 85–86 entrepreneurship 143, 156, 180, 188 Entre Ríos, Argentina 93, 94, 104, 119, 127, 161, 164 Entre Ríos Province, Argentina 121, 147, 160, 167, 310c españoles 57 Esso International 291 Estancia de las Vacas 71 estancias 75–77, 103, 109–110, 117–118, 117, 121, 124, 134, 136, 208, 275 of Buenos Aires Province 122 in the colonial era 32, 35, 38, 47, 76–77, 90 commercial growth of 111–114 expansion of 111–114 Jesuit 307c 342 in the liberal age 157 racial division of labor on 115 structure of 115, 119 subdivision of 115, 159–162 estancieros 113–116, 118, 147– 148, 177, 179, 288, 293–294 growth of class 132 immigrants and 159–162 Rosas and 122, 126 Etchecolatz, Miguel 283, 284 Europe 79, 234 colonies of 79 conflict in the 62–63, 64 economy of 143 northern 71 trade with 71, 119, 138, 146–147, 301, 308c European settlements 9–10, 19, 20–26, 21, 27, 48, 54–56, 132–134, 298–299, 306c European settlers 22, 23–26, 51–53, 55, 131, 132–133, 132, 296–297 executive powers, restructuring of 276–281 exports x, xi, 188, 194, 276, 288–291, 293–294, 311c agrarian expansion and 107–110, 112, 121 agricultural xi, 210–211 in the colonial era 32, 42, 51, 60, 67, 71–72, 74, 85, 307c decline of 192 Great Depression and 184 in the liberal age 138, 142, 143, 144–148, 145t, 153, 162, 166 Mercosur and 266–267 in the neoliberal age 253, 254, 272, 274–275 taxes and 208, 314c Exxon Petroleum 291 Ezeiza International Airport 236, 238, 241, 281, 290 F Fabricaciones Militares 195, 311c facones 124 factories 156, 199, 206–207, 294–295 Falkland Islands See Malvinas, the Falkner, Thomas 16 “Family Compact” 79 farmers 36–37, 36, 76, 167–168 See also agriculture immigrant 131, 159–162, 164, 165 mestizo 61 revolt of 310c strike of 2008 293–294, 293, 314c farm tenants 112–113, 115, 159– 162, 161, 167, 168, 310c Farm Tenants’ Strike of 1912 161, 310c index fascism 193, 197, 201, 204, 215, 216, 251 feathers 9, 14, 72 federalism 93–94, 96, 122, 127, 276 Federalists 125 federalization 139–140, 141 Federal League of the Río de la Plata 93 Federation of Land and Housing 285–286 feminism 212, 216 Ferdinand VII (king of Spain) 89, 90 Fernández de Kirchner, Cristina ix, 275–276, 278, 280–281, 280, 291, 292–295, 314c Ferrell, Edelmiro 193 Fiat 225 Filipinas Company 308c financial panic of 1826 110 financial sector 144, 195 Firmenich, Mario 239, 257, 260, 299 fishing 6, 9, 15–16, 17, 48 flax 162 flota (fleet) system 42, 43, 64 flour 74, 121, 147 flour mills 147, 156 foodstuffs 29, 60, 143, 147–148, 201, 208, 265, 288–289 Ford 225 foreign policy 259 forests forts 55–56 France 62–63, 79, 87, 110, 157, 246, 280 blockade of Buenos Aires 309c invasion of Spain 79–80, 87, 89 Rosas and 127 trade with 109, 127 Franco, Francisco 251 Fraser family 175 free trade 64, 67–68, 80, 308c freight x, 42–43, 119, 120, 143, 144t, 175, 196, 198 French Revolution 79, 80–81 Friedman, Milton 266 frigoríficos See meatpacking industry Frondizi, Arturo 219–220, 221, 225, 226, 312c frontiers 115, 124 expansion of 103, 104, 119 frontier wars 112 settlement of 301 violence on the 51 fruits 15, 73, 74 Full Stop laws 281, 282 furs 72 G Gallego, Francisco 33 Galtieri, Leopoldo 247–252, 257, 282 game 6, 9, 12, 14–15, 17–18, 48 gangsterism 229 Garay, Juan de 25, 48 García, Juan Agustín 25 Gardel, Carlos xi, 154, 155, 185– 186, 190, 191, 237, 264, 310c Garré, Nilda 281 Garzón, Baltasar 282 gauchos xii, 94, 106–107, 113, 115–116, 117, 127, 133, 159, 164, 298 See also cattlemen in the colonial era 45–46, 53, 75–77 culture of 153–156 disappearance of 163–164 Jewish 160 leisure time and 118 military impressment of 115–116 Rosas and 122, 124 gender 3, 9–10, 14, 17–19, 296 See also women gender ratios 121–122 General Labor Confederation See CGT (General Labor Confederation) General Motors 225 Generation of Eighty 138, 139– 142, 142–144, 165–168, 175, 184, 188, 276, 310c geography 1–2 Georgian Islands 251 Germany 109, 192, 203, 280 Ginobili, Manu xi gold 14, 46, 192, 290 golpes de estado See military coups González de Prado, Pedro 33 González Trejo, César 279 Graham-Yooll, Andrew 239 grains 6, 145–147, 145t, 266– 267, 289, 294 Gran Chaco, the 1, 8, 10, 12–15, 13, 23–25, 35, 37, 47, 49–50 Gran Colombia 102 grapes x, 121, 228 Great Britain 42, 62–63, 79–81, 87, 96, 110, 157, 259, 308c, 309c blockade of Buenos Aires 309c elites and 170 El Proceso and 246 foreign investment from 110, 175–183, 192 invasion of Buenos Aires 79–80, 81–84, 88, 89, 308c invasion of Montevideo 308c railroad companies of 176–177, 178, 311c Rosas and 127 the slave trade and 46 trade with 45–46, 108, 109, 127, 143, 145, 147, 191– 192, 194, 307c, 308c, 311c War in the Malvinas 247– 252, 279, 312c Great Depression, the 184–187, 193, 194, 199, 275 343 Green, Enrique 230 gringos 162, 163–166, 298 gross domestic product (GDP) 175, 194t, 227t, 261–262, 268t, 292t, 301 gross external debt 270t gross national product (GNP) 281 Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (United Officers’ Group/GOU) 192–193 Guaná, the 14 guanacos 17 Guaraní, the 5, 9–10, 23–25, 37–38, 51, 62–63, 70, 130, 306c, 307c 1753 uprising on the Pampas 55–56 demographic resurgence of the 58 as gauchos 77 Jesuits and 58, 59, 60 militias of 61, 70 as peons for Paraguayan agriculturists 71 rebellion of 61, 62, 307c, 308c Guayaquil, Ecuaor 101 Güemes, Martín 94 guerrilla movement 232, 233, 238, 241, 254–261, 299, 300, 312c, 313c the Dirty War and 243, 245–246 rise of the 232–236 guerrillas xiii, 98–99 Guevara, Ernesto “Che” xi, 154, 219, 221, 234, 238, 261, 312c guilmenes 18 Güiraldes, Ricardo, Don Segundo Sombra xi gunpowder 68 H hacendados 40, 77 haciendas 38, 40, 48, 70–72, 74, 76–77, 81 Haiti 100 hammocks handicrafts 5–6, 14, 18–19, 48, 60 See also artisanry Hapsburg monarchy 307c Havana, Cuba 42 Heredia, Nicolás de 33 Hernández, José xi, 155, 310c hides xi, 9, 12, 14–15, 45, 47, 53, 60, 67, 71–72, 74–75, 77, 84–85, 94, 103, 107, 109, 114 hide-salting plants 111–112, 121–122 Hirsch, Baron Maurice de 160 horsemanship 77 horses 46, 48–50, 53–56, 54, 76–77, 94, 130–134, 146 Hotel Nahuel Huapi x housing 159, 199, 210 Houssay, Bernardo xi Huacho, Peru 98 Huilliche, the Hu Jintao 290 A Brief History of argentina Humahuaca, the human rights abuses 246–247, 252, 259–260, 282–284, 313c–314c human rights organizations 246, 255, 257, 258, 259, 283 hunter-gatherers 5, 10, 15, 17 hunters 7, 17, 19, 48, 53, 132, 306c See also southern hunters hunting 6, 9–10, 12–19 Hussay, Bernardo 310c hydroelectricity x hyperinflation 263 I Iberian Peninsula 79–80, 87, 308c IBM 225 Iguazú Falls x, 291 Illia, Arturo 220, 222, 312c IMF riots 263–264, 263, 273, 276, 313c immigrants 114–115, 166, 167, 177 anti-immigrant sentiment 173, 310c Asian 199 Bolivian 227–229 bourgeoisie 168 in Buenos Aires 151t, 151, 152–153, 164 English 117 European xi, xiii, 113, 117, 136, 138, 149–150, 150t, 151, 153–154, 157–162, 163–166, 199 exemption from military duty 131, 165 French 150 German 150, 162 housing of 151 in the interior 153, 164 investments by 110 Irish 117 Italian xi, 149–150, 149t, 152, 162 Jewish 150, 173, 174 labor shortages and 116–119 land and 159–162 Latin American 227–229 in the liberal age 148–166 literacy and 153–154 lo argentino and 154–155 on the Pampas 159–162 Paraguayan 227–229 Russian 150, 173, 174 Spanish 40, 56–57, 86, 149–150, 149t Swiss 162 upward mobility of 115 white 115 immigration 27, 139, 166, 174, 199, 310c Alberdi on 129 class and 163–166 economic growth and 148 economics and 148–156 European 127–128, 163–166, 298 gender and 153 Latin American 227–229 in the liberal age 148–156, 149t, 150t urbanization and 148–156 imperialism, crisis of 79–102 import-export houses 86 imports 196, 210, 272, 288 agrarian expansion and 108, 110, 119 in the colonial era 39, 42, 71, 80, 84, 85 European 119 in the liberal age 138, 148 of raw materials 157 impunity 298–300 Inca, the 1, 5–10, 20–24, 34, 306c income inequity 166, 188, 276 Indama, the 32 independence (political) xi, 80, 119 consolidation of 96–102 declaration of 96, 103, 309c independence movements xi, 77, 88–90, 122 in Peru 101 revolution for 79–102, 106, 107 independence (quality of) x–xi, 1, 4, Independence, War of 126, 136, 260, 274, 296, 301, 309c Independence Day 89 India 275, 289 “Indian cloths” 35 “Indian problem,” the 131–135 Indians See indigenous peoples the “Indies” 21 indigenous peoples 57, 91, 93–94, 117, 120, 132, 297, 298 agriculture and 3, 9, 10, 14, 19, 50 autonomy of 19, 48, 132–133 clothing of 5–6, 7, 9, 48, 49, 53 in the colonial era 40, 57, 77 Conquest of the Desert and 132–133, 135, 166, 297, 310c conversion of 31 diet of 6–7, 9, 14–15, 18–19, 48–50, 53, 58 disease and 24, 31, 35, 47–48, 50, 58 diversity of 19 elders of 53 encroachment upon 51, 53, 55 equality of 92, 101 European settlers and 20–26, 32–34, 47–50, 51–53, 55, 104, 131–135, 132, 296– 297, 299, 306c on the eve of European settlement 11m 344 folk medicine of 12, 14 gender roles of 3, 9–10, 14, 17–19 of the Gran Chaco 12–15, 13, 49–50 the “Indian problem” 131–135 individualism of 12 intermarriage among 133 intertribal rivalries 50 Jesuits and 58–62, 70, 71 kinship structure of 10, 14, 50, 58 land and 132 languages of 14, 19, 155 livestock and 48, 49, 50 migration of 50 military capabilities of 133 music of 34 overall characteristics 19 of the Pampas 17–19, 70, 106, 128, 133–134, 136 of Patagonia 17–19, 128 population of 3t in the precolonial era 1–26 raids by 48, 50, 54–56, 124, 131–134, 132, 310c religion of 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19 reorganization of 47–50, 51 resources of Rosas’s campaign to pacify 124 socio-political structure of 7–10, 12, 14, 16–19, 49, 54–55 territory of tolderías 49 tools of 9, 17, 19 trade and 14, 53, 54, 133, 134 tributes to 56, 92, 99, 100, 101, 124, 132, 133 unification of 133 weapons of 7, 10, 14, 16, 17, 48, 49, 54 individualism x–xi, 1, industrialism 107–110 industrialists 228, 265, 301 industrialization 142–144, 189, 222, 301 during the 1930s and 1940s 193–198 after World War II 206–207 beginnings of modern manufacturing 156–157 national 205, 208, 222, 224 under Perón 205, 206, 215–216 the state and 193–198 industrial rationalization 218–219 industries 294–295 See also specific industries “infamous decade,” the 189–193 inflation 201, 209, 220, 222–226, 247, 253, 262–263, 275, 291– 292, 301, 312c, 313c 1945–1984 223t 1980–2001 266t index 1999–2010 292t agrarian expansion and 110 during de-Peronization 222–226, 223t under Isabel Perón 238 under Menem 267 under Onganía 231 under Perón 210–211, 222–224, 223t, 237 influenza 24 Interama (theme park) 242 Inter-American Summit 280 interior, the 192 immigrants in 153 population of 121–122 Rosas and 126–127 trade in 119–122 International Business Machines (IBM) 224 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 253, 254, 261, 263, 267, 271, 274, 291 intervención 127 investment 157 British 110, 175–183, 192 during de-Peronization 224–225 economic nationalism and 174–179 European 225 foreign 110–111, 128, 143–144, 174, 188, 196, 198, 234–235, 238, 241, 248, 253–254, 264–265, 289–293, 301 the Great Depression and 184 in the meat industry 175 oil industry and 179–184 U.S 192, 224–225, 312c Irala, Domingo de 24–25 Iraq 267, 280 iron 60, 157 irrigation 5, 6, 36, 121 Islas Malvinas See Malvinas, the Italian-Argentines 274 Italy 108, 204 J Jenkins’s Ear, War of 62–63 Jesuits 32, 38–39, 43, 45, 49–51, 55, 58, 59, 62–63, 130, 307c, 308c business activities of 59, 60t expulsion of 70–71, 308c indigenous peoples and 58–62, 70, 71 institutions of 60, 71 the Jesuit problem 56–62 Jesuit Ranches, Córdoba 60t mestizos and 61 property of 52, 60t, 70, 71 slaves and 60, 60t, 70, 71 taxes and 58, 60, 61 tax-exempt status of 70 trade and 60, 61 Jewish community center bombing 270, 313c Jews 150, 160, 173, 174, 255, 274, 299, 310c Jockey Club 158, 203 Joseph, King (Joseph Bonaparte) 87–88 Juan Moreira (drama) 155 Juárez Celman, Miguel 310c judiciary 256, 256–257, 269, 299–300 Jujuy, Argentina 5, 29, 35, 74, 307c Jujuy Province, Argentina 29, 31 Junín, Peru 101 justice 298–300, 299–300 justicialismo 204–206, 212 Justicialista Party 212, 277, 278, 281 Justo, Agustín 184, 189–190, 196, 200, 311c K Kaiser 225 Kennedy, John F 219 kidnappings 238 Kirchner, Nestor 275–280, 280, 289, 313c–314c as chairman of the Justicialista party 281 China and 290 the Dirty War and 282–283, 284 economic revival under 288–291 elections of 2007 and 280–281 farmers’ strike of 2008 and 294 IMF and 291 piqueteros and 285–286 kirchnerismo 278, 294 knives 76–77 See also laborers Kon, Daniel 249 L La Boca, Buenos Aires, Argentina 290 labor 120, 148, 156, 310c discipline and 117–118 European 138 flexibility 254 immigration and 148–156 management and 200 under Menem 267 politics and 170–173 race and 116 shortages of 113, 115–119, 124, 127–128, 134, 138–139, 148–149 state and 201, 203 working conditions 114–119, 201, 203 work rules 200 work slowdowns 229 laborers 28, 77, 198–199, 218, 265, 273, 301, 311c antilabor sentiment 173 345 Creole 199–201 during de-Peronization 229–230 the Dirty War and 247 El Proceso and 252 of foreign-owned companies 176–177, 178 gender of 121–122 the Great Depression and 184 immigrant 28, 177, 199, 200, 298 indigenous 57–58, 60–61, 70, 92, 99, 100, 117, 118, 298 inflation and 210–211 mestizo 40, 115 migrant 121–122, 162, 173, 198–199, 200, 227–229, 298 mulatto 115 nonwhite 27–28, 31, 37–38, 40, 52, 57–58, 77–78, 92, 115–116 See also slaves under Onganía 231 Paraguayan Revolt of the Comuneros 298 Perón and 201, 203, 206– 209, 211, 227–232 petroleum nationalism and 226 race and 297 rural 148, 208 seasonal 227–229 urbanization and 148 vagrancy laws and 117–118 labor movement 207, 210, 218, 247, 272, 299 See also labor unions; strikes the Dirty War and 245 under Perón 201, 203, 206, 211, 228 rural 208 labor unions 171, 173, 178, 189, 200–201, 207, 218, 220, 230– 231, 247, 265, 285, 299, 311c See also specific unions during de-Peronization 229–230 guerrilla movement and 235–236 under the Kirchners 276 under Perón 228, 231 Perón and 201, 203, 206, 210, 211, 213 railways and 176–177, 178, 209 rural 208 state control of 201, 203 land 112–113, 132, 168, 271 See also estancias; haciendas land grants 112 land use 115, 288, 289 during the liberal age 157–162 redistribution of 92, 94, 95 renting of 112–113, 114, 159–162 subdivision of 115, 159–162 A Brief History of argentina landowners 39, 40, 57, 75, 81, 92, 115, 117–118, 136, 138– 139, 223, 298, 301 See also estancieros Creoles 92 economic change and 168 economic nationalism and 175 hegemony of the 168 indigenous peoples and 132 during the liberal age 157–162 military and 131 officer corps and 165–166 Perón and 205 Rosas and 122 La Pampa Province, Argentina 133 La Plata, Argentina 139–140, 203, 220, 237, 244, 276 Larden, Walter 146 La Rioja, Argentina 34, 94, 121, 262–263, 307c La Rioja Province, Argentina 105 La Tablada army base 259, 260 Latin America xi, 280 Lavagna, Roberto 289, 291 Law of the Free Womb 309c lay brotherhoods 71, 72 leather 35, 73, 156, 157 leftists xiii, 226, 230, 238, 250, 312c Leloir, Luis Federico xi, 312c Lerma Valley 29 liberal age 138–166 change during 166 class during 157–162, 163–166 economic growth during the 142–144 economics during 144–148, 145t elites during 157–162 exports during 144–148, 145t immigration during 148– 156, 149t, 150t, 157–162, 163–166 landowners during 157–162 manufacturing during 156–157 population during 150t race during 163–166 technological change during the 142–144 technology during 142–144 urbanization during 148–156 working class during 157–162 liberalism 91, 127–128, 138–166, 310c–311c decline of 167–187, 188–189 Liberal Party 131 liberation movement See independence (political) libertos 114 Lima, Peru 42–43, 51, 64, 72, 74, 90, 92, 97–99 Liniers, Santiago 84, 88, 90, 91, 308c literacy x, 153–154 livestock 35, 38, 75–76, 114, 121, 122, 143, 146, 177, 193, 223 llamas 5, 6, 7, 9, 29 Llanquetruz 133 Locke, John 86 Locomotive Fraternity, the (La Fraternidad) 176–177 Lonardi, Eduardo 213, 214, 215, 218 looting xii, 263, 276 López, Carlos Antonio 128 López, Estanislao 104–105 López, Jorge Julio 283 López Rega, José 238 Louis XIV (king of France) 62 loyalists 106, 309c Lugones, Leopoldo 165 Lule, the Luna, Félix 76 Luxembourg 242 M machinery 147, 157 Magellan, Ferdinand 22, 306c Maipo, Chile 97 maize See corn malbec x Malvinas, the 253, 256, 279, 282, 312c Argentine medics in 250 Argentine troops in 248 war in 247–252, 248, 250, 253, 256, 279, 282, 312c management 200 manufacturing 67–68, 111, 142–143, 175, 188, 192, 199, 301, 311c after World War II 206–207 beginnings of modern 156–157 growth of 193–198, 194t during the liberal age 156–157 Perón and 213 Mapuche, the 8–9, 53, 54, 228, 307c, 308c Maradona, Diego xii Marcó del Pont, Agustín 90 Marcó del Pont, Francisco Casimiro 90, 97 Marcó del Pont, Ventura Miguel 73, 81, 84, 88, 90, 109 Mar del Plata, Argentina 280 marochas 228 Martínez de Hoz, José 241, 243 masonry Massera, Emilio 240, 257, 283 mate x, 37–38, 48, 49, 71, 94, 130, 263, 307c Matienzo, José Nicolás 140 Mato Grosso, Brazil 130 Mazorca, the 126, 299 meat 75, 122, 147–148, 156–157, 174–175, 194, 288, 289 beef 29, 67, 84, 109, 138, 223, 266–267, 288, 294 346 chilled 147–148 dried 71, 72, 84, 107, 147 frozen 147–148 mutton 138 salted 74, 112, 147 steak 288 meatpacking industry 148, 174– 175, 175, 177, 199, 200, 211 British 177, 179, 192, 198 national 209, 222 strikes in 207 meat-salting plants 111, 114, 121, 122 media See press, the men 297 Creole 164 immigrants 153 indigenous 9–10, 14, 17–19, 48 See also hunters; warriors in the interior 121–122 slaves 41 Mendoza, Argentina x, 90, 97–98, 119, 125, 134, 168, 244, 301 in the colonial era 31, 40, 45, 47, 74, 81 economy of 121 farmers in 36–37, 36 founding of 29, 306c racial composition of 67t trade in 34, 36 wines from See wine industry Mendoza, Pedro de 22–23, 25, 33, 306c Mendoza expedition 23, 48, 306c Mendoza Province, Argentina 162, 177, 188, 228, 297 Menem, Carlos Saúl 259–260, 262–263, 264–268, 264, 276– 278, 281, 300, 313c campaign for a second term 267 convertibility plan 288 corruption accusations against 269–270 economic reform and 264– 267, 268t election of 262–264 interview with 265 neoliberalism and 264–267 pardoning of Galtieri 282 pensions and 292–293 the press and 268–270 reelection of 272 unemployment under 285 United States and 267, 269, 280 menemismo 267 Menéndez, Luciano 247 Menéndez, Mario 248, 250, 251 mercantilism 85 Mercedes-Benz 225 merchants 92, 106, 109–110, 301 See also retailing British 82 in Buenos Aires 66, 71–72 index in the colonial era 31–32, 39–41, 57, 59–61, 63–64, 66–67, 69, 73, 77, 82 Creole 80, 85, 88, 89, 109 estancieros and 113 in the liberal age 157–158 mestizo 61 military and 131 Rosas and 122 Spanish 80–81, 84–85, 89–90, 109, 136, 308c Mercosur (Mercado Común del Sur/Common Market of the South) 266–267, 272, 290, 313c mercury 29, 51, 71, 80, 85 mestizos 93–94, 104, 113, 115– 116, 130, 136, 297–298 in the colonial era 23–25, 28–29, 31, 38, 40–41, 52, 57–58, 61, 307c as gauchos 77 Jesuits and 61 revolt against Jesuits 61 rights of 68 in San Martín’s force 97 metal industry 60, 157, 195, 199, 207, 232 metals, precious 21 Mexico 5, 20, 72, 274, 280 Mexico City, Mexico 72 middle class, the x, xii, 138, 166, 172, 213, 273, 285 authoritarianism and 298–299 corralito and 288 coups d’etat and 216–217 Creole 167 economic crisis of 2001–2002 and 275 employment and 232 farmers’ strike of 2008 and 293–294 formation of 138–139 Great Depression and 184 immigrant 168–170 labor and 173 under Menem 267 in the military 130–131 nationalism of 195 Perón and 204–206, 208– 209, 213, 215–216 piqueteros and 286 populism and 204–206 unemployment and 271 urban 168–170 working-class violence and 171 youth of 232 military, the xiii, 140, 203, 253, 299 amnesty and 254–258, 278 blacks in 125 budget of 256, 258 Carapintada, the 258–261, 258 conscription 106, 113, 115– 116, 119, 128, 130, 165 Cordobazo and 231, 232 culpability of 254–261, 281 de-Peronization and 218– 222, 301, 312c desertions from 106 the Dirty War and 243–247, 254–258, 281, 300, 301 economic crisis of 2001–2002 and 275 elites and 131 El Proceso and 240–243 factionalism in 220 formation of national army 128, 309c guerrilla movement and 232–236 human rights abuses by 313c impunity of 254–258, 281, 313c–314c industrialization and 195 landowners and 131 merchants and 131 middle class in 130 military courts 68 nationalism and 180 oil industry and 196 Perón and 205, 208–209, 228, 237 porteños in 309c Revolución Libertadora 312c strikes and 310c suicides and 279 War of the Triple Alliance and 128, 130–131 the working class and 130, 228–230 military coups 168, 216–217 of 1930 184–187, 185, 187, 196, 311c of 1943 192–193, 201, 203, 311c of 1955 (Revolución Libertadora) 213, 226, 232, 312c of 1966 231, 312c of 1976 240, 312c militias 103, 104, 106, 122, 125, 132, 133 blacks in 89, 91 colonial 68, 70, 82–84, 88 Creole-led 88–89, 90, 308c Guaraní 61, 70 mulattoes in 91 porteño 139, 309c provincial 128, 131, 139, 140 reorganization of 68, 70 Milstein, César xi, 313c Minas Gerais, Brazil 60 Minimax 235 mining 28–29, 42, 62, 103, 106, 119, 290 Ministry of Justice 257 Miseli, Felisa 281 Misiones, Argentina 130 missions 38–39, 51, 55–56, 58–60, 61–63, 70–71, 307c, 308c Mistral, Gabriela 216 347 mita 28 Mitre, Bartolomé 128, 130, 131, 143, 310c mocetones 18 moderados 246–247 modernization xi, 27, 138–141, 147, 153, 168, 196, 198, 215–216 monasteries 28 monetarism 264, 266 monopolies 68, 72, 80, 131, 224, 307c, 308c Monroe Doctrine 248 monteros 160 Montevideo, Uruguay 61, 74, 82–83, 90–91, 93, 94–95, 106, 127, 260, 307c, 308c montoneros 92, 94, 119, 234–235, 235, 236–240, 239, 255, 256, 257, 261, 277, 282, 299, 312c Montsanto 224 Moreno, Mariano 86, 89, 91 morenos 116 See also blacks Mosconi, Enrique 180–182, 195, 225 Mothers of Plaza de Mayo 245– 246, 246, 247, 252, 254, 256, 259, 261, 282, 284, 312c mulattoes 93, 94, 104, 113, 115–116, 120, 136 in the colonial era 41, 52, 68, 77, 89 as gauchos 77 in the militias 89, 91 rights of 68 Rosas and 124 in San Martín’s force 97 mules 29–32, 39, 60, 119 mule fair at Salta 29–31, 34, 35, 119 muleteers 45 mule trade 119 mule trains 28, 29, 42 multinational corporations 224– 225, 235, 312c murder 256–257 music xi Creole 155, 310c gauchesque 155, 156, 190, 310c musicians 155, 156, 190, 191, 264, 310c Mussolini, Benito 204 N Nación, La 279 Namúncura 133–134 Napoléon 79–80, 81, 87, 87, 308c National Autonomist Party See PAN (Partido Autonomista Nacional) National Commission on Disappeared Persons 254, 256–257 national industry 222 A Brief History of argentina nationalism 86, 127, 166, 168, 170, 191–193, 204, 206, 276, 311c antiforeign 122 economic 174–179, 179–184, 191–192, 195–196, 205, 208–209, 225 petroleum 179–184 nationalists, Perón and 208–209 nationalization 311c nation building 103–137, 128, 140 natural resources xi navy 104, 177, 195 Navy Mechanics School 245, 251, 257, 282–283, 284, 314c Nazism 192, 206 Negroes See blacks Negro River 55 negros bozales 40 neoliberalism 253–274, 268–272, 276, 277, 285, 294, 301, 313c–314c Neuquén, Argentina 133 Never Again (Nunca Más) 256– 257, 313c New Granada, viceroyalty of 64 New Spain, viceroyalty of 64 Newton, Isaac 86 New York Times 246, 267, 269 New Zealand 194 Nicaragua 246 Night of the Long Pencils 233, 234, 312c Night of the Saucepans 272, 273 Nobel Prize winners xi, 196, 252, 310c, 311c, 312c–313c Noriega, Manuel 267 North America 21, 63, 109 nutria 14, 72 O Oberto, Fabricio xi Ocampo, Victoria 215, 216, 251, 311c October 17, 1945 strike 201–204, 311c officer corps, the 68, 81–83, 130, 192–193, 299 Carapintada, the 258–261, 258 de-Peronization and 218– 220, 224, 235, 241 the Dirty War and 252, 256–258, 281, 284 in the liberal age 165–166 Perón and 205, 208–209, 213, 228 O’Higgins, Bernardo 97 oil industry, the 175, 177, 195–196, 241, 264–265, 285, 311c See also petroleum nationalism; Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (Federal Petroleum Deposits/YPF) 1922–1930 183t 1922–1940 195t Arab oil boycott of 1973 241 foreign investment and 179–184 growth of 195t nationalization of 179–184, 195t, 196, 209, 222, 225, 310c oil prices 241, 311c oil workers 177, 271, 285 privatization of 271 self-sufficiency and 226 ollas públicas 277 O’Neill, Paul 274 Onganía, Juan Carlos 220, 223, 230–232, 234–235, 240, 312c On Heroes and Tombs (Sábato) 254 orientales 93, 94 Ortiz, Roberto M 191, 192, 311c ostriches 17, 72 outmigration 121–122 oxcarting 35, 119 P Pachamama (goddess Mother Earth) 105 Pacific Oceans 22 Painted Faces, the 258–261, 278 Palermo Park xii palisades Palmolive 224 pampa húmeda 288 Pampas, the x–xii, 135–136, 297 Araucanization of 53–56, 54 cattle raising on 51, 111–114 cereal crops in 143 in the colonial era 29, 47–52, 53–56, 54, 70, 75–78, 115–116 Darwin in 309c estancias on 111–112, 114 immigrants on 159–162 immigration to 114–115 indigenous peoples in 70, 106, 128 indigenous peoples of the 133–134, 136, 308c labor shortage in 124 land use in 115 peoples of 17–19 population increase on the 112 in the precolonial era 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17–19, 23 racial division of labor on 115 rural production in 115 settlement of 75–78 sheep production on 114, 115 textiles from 121 warriors of 54 PAN (Partido Autonomista Nacional) 138, 140–142, 167– 168, 171, 189 Panama 42, 277 Panama City, Panama 42 Paraguay x, xi, 96, 102, 106, 119, 266–267, 306c, 307c, 309c See also specific cities caudillos in 94–95 in the Chaco War 196 348 in the colonial era 29, 40, 45, 48, 50–51, 56–62, 64, 71, 79, 307c economic integration into Latin America 59–60 gatherers of yerba in 37–38 laborers from 227–229 population of, 1942 3t in the precolonial era 1, 5, 9, 20, 23–25 Rebellion of Comuneros 307c revolution and 92 Rosas and 126–127 trade in 60 War of the Triple Alliance and 128, 130–131 war with 104, 128, 130–131, 132–133, 136, 310c Paraguayan Revolt of the Comuneros 61, 62 Paraguay River 23, 58, 130 Paraná River 20, 23, 25, 29, 35, 37, 39, 58, 60, 104, 110, 121, 130, 306c international trade on 127 Paraná River basin x, 5, 21, 119 pardos 89 See also mulattoes Partido Autonomista Nacional See PAN (Partido Autonomista Nacional) pastoral production 111, 119, 144–148, 146 pastures 48, 147, 288, 289 Patagonia x, 135, 159, 225, 310c in the colonial era 49, 53, 55 as federal oil reserve 179 indigenous peoples in 17–19, 128 oil industry in 271 in the precolonial era 1, 5, 10 seasonal labor in 228 settlement in 262 strikes in 173 patotas 243–245, 247, 299, 312c patriarchy 172 patronage 140 patronas 297, 298 Paulista slaving expedition 307c Pavón, battle of 104, 309c Peace of Paris 308c peanuts 9, 162 peccaries 14 Pehuenche, the 18 penal system, under Rosas 125, 126 pensions 292–293, 314c peones 25, 114–116, 132, 170, 297, 301 Creole 164 military impressment and 118–119 strikes by 208 vagrancy laws and 117–119 People’s Revolution 92–96 peppers 5, Pérez Esquivel, Adolfo xi, 252, 254, 312c–313c index Perón, Eva Duarte de xi, 209, 212, 216, 219, 230, 232–234, 238, 273 at 1947 rally 207 burial of 235–236 charity foundation of 210, 212 death of 211–212, 237 remains of 212, 261, 312c Perón, Juan Domingo xi, xiii, 191, 193, 198, 204, 220, 229, 230, 233, 235, 239, 276, 277, 298 at 1947 rally 207 arrest of 197, 203, 311c assassination attempts against 216 austerity program under 211 the Catholic Church and 205, 213 death of 237, 260–261 the economy and 206–207, 209–211, 223, 237 election of 206, 311c Eva Perón and 212 in exile 219, 227, 235–236, 312c fascism and 193, 204, 215, 216, 251 Frondizi and 219–220 Guevara and 221 industrialization and 205 in Italy 193, 204 as labor minister 193, 201, 202, 203, 205, 311c the labor movement and 201, 203, 206, 231 the military and 213, 214, 215, 218, 225, 228, 237 nationalism and 204–206, 225–226 nationalization of railways by 208–209 October 17, 1945 strike and 203–204 opposition to 213, 215 petroleum nationalism and 225, 226 populism and 204–206 presidential campaign of 205–206 the press and 268 reelection of 215, 312c remarriage of 236 resignation of 213 return of 232, 236–240 revision of the constitution by 213, 214, 215 rule of 206–217, 207 second term of 212 social inequities and 198–201 state-run industries and 175, 208–210 the United States and 205–206 women’s suffrage and 212, 215, 216 the working class and 228–229 Perón, María Estela (Isabel) Martínez de 236, 237–238, 240, 284, 312c Peronism 218, 220, 226, 230–231, 234, 251–252, 263–265, 301 Peronist Party 262, 272–275, 277–278, 313c, 314c Peronists 206–217, 218, 226, 253, 262, 276, 294, 312c El Proceso and 240 Eva Perón and 212 exclusion from elections 312c Frondizi and 219–220 guerrilla movement 232–236 Peronist workers 227–232 Peronist Youth movement 277–278 rallying on October 17, 1947 207 repression of 218–219 resistance of 227–232 return of 236–238, 240 Peru 97–98, 256, 306c Bolívar in 99–102 colonial 29, 46, 74 independence in 101 loyalists in 309c precolonial 1, 5, 20, 25 San Martín in 99–102 Tupac Amaru rebellion in 308c viceroyalty of 64 Peruvians 97, 99, 101 peso 112–113, 222–224, 231, 266, 272, 274–275, 277, 288– 290, 313c petroleum nationalism 179–184, 195–196, 195t, 222, 225, 226, 264–265, 310c, 311c Piazzolla, Astor 264 Picunche, the Pinochet, Augusto 250, 251, 266 piqueteros 285–287, 286, 292, 294 Pisco, Peru 98 Pizarro, Francisco 23, 24, 306c Plan Austral (Southern Plan) 262, 313c plantations 38 See also haciendas plata dulce 243 Plaza de Mayo 159, 203–204, 213, 235, 258, 272, 286, 294, 312c Plaza of Mendoza 36 police forces 126, 273, 310c, 312c blacks in 125 Blandengues rural police force 308c Cordobazo and 231, 232 the Dirty War and 283 the Mazorca 126, 299 patotas 243–245, 247, 299, 312c politics x–xi, xiii, 94–96, 103, 167 caudillo-style 104–107 class and 170–173 corruption and 166, 188 criollo politics 141, 168, 188 federalism v centralism 94–96 349 Generation of Eighty 139–142 during the “infamous decade” 189–193 labor and 170–173 political participation 138, 139, 141 political transition 1916–1930 168–170 populism 188–217 polo xii Ponce de León, Juan 24 ponchos 5–6, 72–73, 121 poor, the 95, 125, 164–166, 171–172, 229, 233, 241, 275, 286–287, 294, 297 See also villas miserias in the colonial era 39, 52 in the liberal age 159 in the neoliberal age 265, 267, 271–272 Perón and 208, 211, 212 Popham, Home Riggs 82 popular classes, the 100, 106, 170–173, 298 controlling the 170–173 discipline and 125, 126 Perón and 201, 203 revolution and 92–96 Rosas and 122, 124, 125, 126 population 67–68 of Buenos Aires 151t, 307c, 310c, 311c of Córdoba 308c Creole 86 gender ratios 121–122 Hispanic 51, 53, 55 indigenous 51, 53 of the interior 121–122 labor shortages and 115–116 during the liberal age 150t on the Pampas 112, 115–116, 116t population growth 51, 53, 55, 74, 75t, 86, 112, 121, 198–199 racial composition and 67–68, 67t rural 116t, 122 underpopulation 127–128 See also labor: shortages of populism 122, 188–217, 223– 224, 253, 263, 267, 276, 301, 311c–313c porteños 91–93, 104, 109, 110, 139, 154, 188, 262 in the colonial era 43, 45, 64, 72, 85 expressions of 154 porteño troops 128 protectionism of 131 Rosas and 124 ports port facilities 188, 301 port revenues 122 Port Stanley 250 port workers 173 A Brief History of argentina Portugal 61–62, 79, 80, 85, 87, 93, 307c, 308c Portuguese, the 22, 28, 32, 38, 42–46, 51, 58, 61, 62–63, 74, 93–94, 307c, 308c potatoes 5, Potosí, Bolivia 28–29, 36–37, 42, 48, 51, 90, 91, 106, 306c mining in 119 Potosí market 29, 32, 34–36 silver mines in 64 trade with 74 Potro, Juan Martín del xi–xii pottery 6, 14, 18 poverty See poor, the press, the 215, 268–270 prices 171, 201, 210–211, 222– 224, 291 See also cost of living; inflation private retirement accounts, nationalization of 292–293 privatization 264, 265, 267, 269, 271, 272, 276, 285, 313c processing industry 110, 111, 147–148, 156–157, 188 Process of National Reorganization (El Proceso) See El Proceso production, Great Depression and 184 Pro-Lonardi demonstrators 215 prostitution 171–172 protectionism, porteño 131 provinces 103–104, 275, 309c–310c Andean 121 commercial renaissance of the 1830s 120–122 consolidation of political control over 131 disunity among the 104–107 governments of 106, 120 interior 126–128, 135–137, 142 littoral 148 political rapprochement among the 103–104 reorientation of trade in the 119–122 riparian 107, 121 public health 171, 172 public spending 253, 272, 276, 291–295 Puelche, the 16, 17 Puerto Argentino 250 Puerto Nuevo district, Buenos Aires, Argentina 228 Pueyrredón, Juan Martín de 104 pulperías 115 pulperos 113, 115, 117 Punta del Este, Uruguay 272 purges 240 Q Quechua 6, 8, 120 Querandí, the 17, 20, 22, 23, 34, 48 Quinto River 54 Quiroga, Facundo 94 R race 154, 163, 200, 297, 298 in Buenos Aires 66 class and 120, 158 in the colonial militias 68 labor and 115, 297 during the liberal age 163–166 in Mendoza, Argentina, 1812 67t racial mixing 41 under Rosas 122, 124, 126 racism xiii, 80, 128 Radical Party, in the neoliberal age 253–254 Radical Party, the 167–168, 170– 171, 173, 176–177, 179–180, 183–184, 277, 310c, 311c, 313c de-Peronization and 218– 220, 252 in the neoliberal age 262, 272 Perón and 188–190, 192, 196, 200 raids 10, 48, 50, 54–56, 124, 131, 132–134, 132, 310c railways 141, 143, 144t, 159, 168, 174–175, 176, 196, 198, 290, 301, 310c Alberdi on 128, 129 British 175–177, 178, 192, 196, 198, 200, 203, 209, 311c cargo and passengers, 1880– 1915 144t national 208–209, 222, 264, 311c privatization of 271 railway workers 201, 203, 211, 247 wages paid by 148–149 Railway Union (Unión Ferroviaria) 176–177, 201, 203 Ramírez, Francisco 94, 104–105, 119 ranchers 61, 76–77 ranches See estancias Ranqueles, the 133, 134 Razzano, José 155, 310c Reagan, Ronald 246, 248 Real Caja de Consolidación 90 recession of 1952 210–211, 213 “Reconquest of the Americas” 63 refrigeration 147–148 regime change 225–226 See also military coups religion, freedom of 128 religious instruction 205, 213 Renault 225, 231 rents See farm tenants represores 282–283, 284, 300 Republic of Argentina 127, 140, 309c Residency Law 171 retailing 110, 115 Revolución Libertadora 213, 214, 215, 226, 232, 312c 350 revolution See War of Independence Revolutionary Army of the People (ERP) 234, 258 Revolution of 1943 192–193 revolution of 1955 See Revolución Libertadora Rico, Aldo 258, 259 rights 79, 129 See also suffrage right-wing groups 299 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 62, 130 Río de la Plata colonial 25–26, 27–50, 51–78, 65m precolonial 20–25 Río de la Plata, estuary of 1, 15–16, 20, 25, 52, 61–62, 74, 82, 93, 107, 108–109, 306c Río de la Plata, Viceroyalty of 64, 65m, 69–70, 79–84, 87–89, 300–301, 308c–309c breakdown of the 91–92 first battle between Europeans and indigenous peoples at 22 internal trade of 119–122 reforms in 64 revolution in 88–90 Rio Grande Sul, Brazil 58, 61 Río Negro 262 Río Negro valley 134, 135 riots 263–264, 263, 273, 277 Rivadavia, Bernadino 105, 110, 112 river trade 74, 111, 119, 121, 127 river travel 35–36, 42–43 Roca, Julio A 136–137, 144, 167, 184, 205, 222, 297 accession of 138, 310c assassination attempts against 171 Conquest of the Desert 132– 133, 135, 141, 159, 310c Generation of Eighty and 139–142 Roca, Julio A., Jr 194 Roca-Runciman Treaty 194, 198, 311c Rockefeller, Nelson 235 rodeos 76–77 Rodríguez de Francia, José Gaspar 94–95, 128 Roldán, María 237 Rondeau, José 104 root crops 14, 15 Rosario, Argentina 147, 153, 203, 263 Rosario, Santa Fe Province, Argentina 146 Rosas, Encarnación 124 Rosas, Juan Manuel de 106, 112, 123, 128, 136, 165, 204, 251, 299 fall of 127, 133 as governor of Buenos Aires Province 122–126, 309c indigenous peoples and 132, 133 index the interior and 126–127 remains of 260, 263, 313c Rosas, Manuela 124 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 86 Royal Dutch Shell See Shell royal monopolies 68, 72 Royal Treasury, yearly tax revenues 1770–1808 69t Rúa, Fernando de la See de la Rúa, Fernando rural life 76, 135–136, 160, 163 rural population 122 rural population 116t, 120 rural production 110, 115 Rural Society (Sociedad Rural) 158, 179 S Saavedra, Cornelio de 88 Saavedra Lamas, Carlos xi, 196, 311c Sabatini, Gabriela xi Sábato, Ernesto 254 sacrifices Sáenz Peña, Roque 167 Saint Jean, Ibérico 243 saladeros 74, 107, 111, 114, 136, 147 Salado River 56, 77, 115, 124 Salinas Grandes 133 Salta, Argentina 32, 94, 156, 228, 290, 297 demonstrations at 270, 271 founding of 307c mule fair at 29–31, 34, 35, 119 trade and 119 Salta Province, Argentina 5, 131, 179, 285 Salvador de Bahia, Brazil 62 same-sex marriage 314c Sanavirón, the 32 Sánchez Labrador, Padre 55–56 San Juan, Argentina 29, 134, 306c San Luis, Argentina 31, 120, 307c San Luis Province, Argentina 121 San Martín, José de xi, 90, 91, 96–102, 98, 284, 309c San Martín de los Andes, Argentina 290 Santa Catarina, Brazil 58, 61 Santa Cruz Province, Argentina 275, 278 Santa Fe, Argentina 36, 37, 50, 104, 153, 297, 301, 310c founding of 25, 29, 307c looting by Abipón warriors 308c port of 35 trade in 34 Santa Fe Province, Argentina 121, 146, 147, 160, 162, 167 Santa Isabel estancia 146 Santiago, Chile 8, 36, 74, 90, 97, 101 Santiago del Estero, Argentina 29, 32, 34–35, 35, 50, 73, 120, 306c São Paulo, Brazil 38, 62 Sarmiento, Domingo F 120, 126, 131, 139, 155, 294 Sayhueque 133 Schmidel, Ulrich 22 schools 153–154 Seineldín, Mohammed Alí 259 Semana Trágica (“Tragic Week”) 173, 174, 310c servants 115 Seven Years’ War 63 sexual license 58 shamans 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 50 sharecroppers 160 See also farm tenants sheep 29, 38, 110, 114–115, 138, 145–146, 228 See also shepherds Shell 177, 179–183, 196 shepherds 115, 173 shipbuilding 74, 195 shipping industry x, 51, 64, 66–67, 74, 119, 153 British invasion of 89 in Buenos Aires 108–109, 108t foreign 72, 77, 80 German 80 international 110, 111 U.S 80, 89 shoe industry 156, 175 shopkeepers See pulperos S.I.A.M company 175, 197, 225, 312c Sierras de Córdoba 32 silver xi, 14, 20 silver mining 27, 28–29, 45, 51, 64, 106, 110, 119, 122, 306c silver trade 34, 37, 39, 42–47, 51, 63, 67, 71–72, 74, 80, 85, 119, 306c silver trail 47 taxes on 67 skin color 297–298 See also race slavery 27, 79, 99–101, 297, 308c in the colonial era 307c end of 116, 124, 309c Jesuits and 60 outlawing of 127, 309c Rosas and 124–125 slave hunters 58, 62, 307c slave owners 39–41 slave trade 43, 45–46, 67–68, 71, 124, 307c, 308c slaves 23–24, 39, 52, 55, 85, 100, 120 African 27, 28, 39–40, 43, 45, 60, 67–68, 71, 297, 307c, 308c cautivas 134–135 emancipation of 309c indigenous 38, 40 Jesuits and 70, 71 in San Martín’s force 97–98, 99 351 slums See villas miserias smallpox 24 smuggling 43–47, 69, 70, 72, 77 snowmelt 5, 36, 121 soccer xii, 246, 312c soccer championships of 1978 246, 312c social conformity 154–155 social control 163–164, 171, 172, 200, 298 social conventions xii–xiii social hierarchy 57, 63, 154–155, 296–298 social inequities 52–53, 63, 104, 112–113, 115–116, 136, 138– 139, 164, 166, 188, 198–201, 294–295, 296–298, 298–300, 301 Socialist Party 168, 171, 173, 189, 218 social justice 206 social mobility 166 social order 298 social question, the 198–201 social reformism 168 social tensions 77 social violence 80 society, porteño 66 Society of Jesus See also Jesuits Solano López, Francisco 128, 130 Soldiers of Perón 234–235 South America 21 Southern Cone 1, 3t, 22 See also specific countries; specific countries and regions southern hunters 10, 12–19, 13, 47–50 Southern Plan 262 soybeans 288–290, 293–294 Spain 19, 20–26, 27–50, 66, 85, 90, 93, 246, 282, 308c Basque provinces 72 colonies of 79 financial dependence on colonies 80–81 France and 79–80, 87, 89 imperial 38, 42–43, 45, 51–78 See also Spanish Crown independence from xi, 88–89, 97–98, 309c Napoléon’s invasion of 79–80, 87, 89 Portugal and 61–62, 79, 308c trade with 71, 108 Spaniards 63–64, 77, 80, 86–89, 92–94, 120, 296–297 Spanish-Argentines 274 Spanish Crown, the 38, 42, 43, 45, 51–52, 64, 67–68, 79, 300, 307c Bourbon Reforms and 52–53, 63–71 the church and 70–71 Guaraní loyalty to 61 the Portuguese and 62 A Brief History of argentina Spanish priests See also Jesuits Spanish settlers 4, 5, 7, 21, 27–50, 53, 56–57, 62, 306c, 307c Spanish Succession, War of the 62, 307 spears 10, 54 spirits 68 sports xi–xii squash stage of siege 127 Standard Oil Company 179–183, 196, 225–226 See also Exxon Petroleum state, the See also bureaucracy Alberdi on government 129 bureaucrats 170 church and 70–71, 213, 311c government employment 272–273 industrialization and 193–198 labor and 201, 203 state repression 240–246 state terrorism 125, 126 state-run industries 175, 209–210, 222, 224–225, 241, 253–254, 262, 264, 271, 285, 310c, 311c states’ rights 122 See also federalism steel 157 strikes 171, 173, 177, 189, 209, 218, 247, 263, 310c See also Cordobazo; demonstrations between 1946 and 1948 207 of 1953 211 of 1954 213 in 1964 220 of 1979 312c during the Alfonsin administration 262 among rural laborers 208 under de la Rúa 273 during de-Peronization 229–230 of October 17, 1945 201– 204, 204 outlawing of 231 under Perón 209, 211, 211, 213, 215, 228 repression of 215 by university students 310c Suárez Mason, Guillermo 284 subsidies 265 suffrage 138, 139, 167, 212 sugar 38, 40, 48, 119, 142, 153, 157, 228 suicides 279 sunflowers 288, 289, 293–294 Supreme Court 282 Sur 216, 251 Sweden 246 sweet potatoes Swift-Armour Company 179, 269 Switzerland 242 syndicalist traditions 171 T Taiwan 290 tallow 29, 112, 114 Tandil Hills 55 tango xi, 190, 264, 290 tapir 14 tariffs 64, 253, 254, 264 taxes 93, 120, 122, 262, 276, 289, 293–294, 301, 314c under the Bourbon Reforms 63, 68–70 collection of 69, 80, 308c in the colonial era 39, 41–43, 51–53, 58, 60–61, 63, 67–70, 69t, 77, 80–81, 86, 89 on exports 208 Jesuits and 58, 60, 61, 70 under Menem 270–271 on silver production 67 tax and spend mentality 291–295 tax evasion 41–43, 52–53, 69 tax farmers 69 tax loopholes 63, 67 tax officials 69–70 tax revenues 68–70, 69t wartime 81 tea 36 Teatro Colón x technological change, economic growth and 142–144 technology xi, 3, 135, 138, 140– 141, 153, 188, 253–254, 301 farming 147–148 during the liberal age 142–144 Tehuelche, the 17, 55, 135 telegraphy 141, 153 telephone industry 153, 209, 222, 271 terrorism 125–126, 238, 243, 256, 259, 270, 312c, 313c textiles 28, 60, 71, 73–74, 119, 121, 157, 175, 199–200, 211 Thatcher, Margaret 246, 248 Tierra del Fuego x, 250 tierras baldías 112 timber 9, 35, 119 Timerman, Jacobo 255 tobacco 14, 35, 45, 48, 53, 68–69, 94, 130, 148 tolderías 49 toldos 12, 18, 53 tools 48 Topa Inca 8, 9, 306c torture 243, 245, 253, 254, 255, 256–257, 281, 283 tourism 288, 289, 290–291 towns See also specific towns in the colonial era 34–36, 64 town councils (cabildos) 64, 83–84, 88, 309c town meetings 89, 90 trade and 34–36 trade 29, 36, 54, 60, 87, 103, 119, 128, 144, 145t 352 in the 18th century 51–52 with Banda Oriental, Uruguay 74 under the Bourbon Reforms 64, 67–68 with Brazil 43, 108, 109, 272, 290 in Buenos Aires 73, 79–80, 107–110, 108t, 119 between Buenos Aires and the provinces 119 with Chile 74, 290 with China 289t, 290 in the colonial era 29–32, 34–36 with Cuba 108, 109 with the Dutch 44–45 with Europe 42, 67, 71, 108, 108t, 119, 138, 144, 146–147, 301, 308c foreign 110–111 with France 109, 127 free 64, 67–68, 80, 122, 308c with Germany 109 with Great Britain 84–85, 88, 108–109, 127, 143, 145, 147, 191–192, 194, 307c, 308c, 311c illegal 43–47, 51–52, 62–64, 67, 69–72, 77, 86, 93, 306c, 307c indigenous peoples and 48, 49–50, 56, 131–134 in the interior 119–122 international 42, 45, 60, 77, 81–82, 85, 107–110, 108t, 114, 119, 122, 127, 129– 131, 144–148, 195, 266, 275, 301 See also specific countries interprovincial 119–122 with Italy 108 Jesuits and 61 during the liberal age 144–148 livestock 29–31 Mercosur and 266–267, 290 modernization of 147 with Montevideo, Uruguay 74 with North America 109 with the Portuguese 43–44 with Potosí, Bolivia 74 reorientation of 119–122 restrictions on 300–301 in the Río de la Plata 300–301 river trade 74 Rosas and 127 with Spain 67, 71, 108 towns and 34–36 trade barriers 254 trade deficits 272 trade reforms 64, 67–68 trade restrictions 43–47, 64, 77 trade routes 31–32, 35–37, 42–43 index with the United States 85, 109, 192, 280, 290 with Venezuela 290 volatility of 85 warfare and 85 tramway system 153 transportation x, 108t, 110, 115, 153, 176, 188, 196, 198 Treaty of Madrid 61–62, 308c Triple A See Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A) Triple Alliance, War of the 128, 130–131, 132–133, 136, 309c Triple Alliance, War of the 12 Tucumán, Argentina 47–48, 73–74, 96, 103, 106–107, 119, 228, 309c, 310c founding of 307c October 17, 1945 strike in 203 sugar industry in 142 trade in 34–35 Tucumán Province, Argentina 6, 29, 32, 40, 45, 162, 188, 297 Tumusla, Bolivia 101 Tupac Amaru rebellion 308c turkeys U underemployment 292 unemployed, rise of the 285–287 unemployment xii, 77, 157, 231, 271, 271, 273, 275, 276, 292, 313c under Menem 267, 271–272 rise of the unemployed 285–287 during World War I 171 unification 103–104, 128, 131 Uníon Ferroviaria 310c–311c unionism 276 Unitarians 125 See also centralism United Nations 247–248 United Provinces of Argentina, the constitution of 127 under Urquiza 127 United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, the 96, 104, 105, 125, 136, 309c–310c constitutions of 103–104 disunity of 104–107 formation of 103 international trade and 119 trade within 119–122 unification of 103–104 violence in the 125, 126 war with indigenous peoples 104 war with Paraguay 104 United States, the 192, 234, 259, 290 economic crisis of 2001–2002 and 274 El Proceso and 246 farm lobbies in 192 foreign investment from 179–180, 181, 182–183, 224–225 Kirchners and 276, 279–280 meat industry and 175 Menem and 267, 280 Perón and 205–206 trade with 109, 192, 280, 290 universities xi, 86, 170, 230, 234 See also specific universities University of Buenos Aires 170, 230, 233, 234, 309c University of Chuquisaca (Bolivia) 86 University of Córdoba 38, 70, 86, 170, 230, 232 University of La Plata 170, 230, 310c University of Mendoza 230 University of Rosario 230 University of San Felipe (Santiago, Chile) 86 University of Santa Fe 170, 310c University of Tucumán 170, 230, 310c university students 230 Cordobazo and 232 guerrilla movement and 232–234 Night of the Long Pencils 233, 234, 312c strikes by 310c university strikes of 1918 and 1919 170 upper classes See elites urbanization 166, 189, 198–199, 289 immigration and 148–156 during the liberal age 148–156 working class and 171 Uriburu, José F 184, 185, 187, 189, 311c Urquiza, Justo José de 127, 309c Uruguay 95–96, 130, 266–267, 307c See also specific cities artiguista movement in 92–93, 94 caudillos in 94 in the colonial era 45, 61–62, 64, 71 independence of 309c population of 3t precolonial 1, 20 revolution and 91 Rosas and 126–127 War of the Triple Alliance and 130, 309c Uruguay River 58, 74, 93, 104, 121, 127, 307c Ushuaia, Argentina x, 290 utility companies 291 353 V vagrancy laws 117–118, 119 Valparaíso, Chile 128 vaquería 45–47, 75 Varsavsky, Carlos 233 vendepatrias 234 Venezuela 64, 99–100, 102, 280, 290 Venezuelans 101 Vespucci, Amerigo 20–21 veterans 279, 282 Videla, Jorge 240, 241, 243, 246–247, 257 Viedma, Argentina 262 Vilas, Guillermo xi Villa Rica, Paraguay 307c villas miserias 200, 208, 228, 229–230, 233, 241, 285 Viola, Roberto 257 violence 51, 80, 195, 220, 238 in the era of caudillos 125, 126 impunity and 298–300 riots 263–264, 263, 273, 277 working-class 171 viticulture x, 36, 37, 121, 162, 228 See also wine industry viveza criolla 200 Voltaire 86 Voroganos, the 133 voting rights See suffrage voting system See electoral system W wages 118, 199, 200–201, 218, 247, 262, 297, 311c during de-Peronization 229 fall of during World War I 171 freeze of 211, 262 increase in 148–149 military 256, 258 under Onganía 231 paid by railways 148–149 under Perón 206–207, 210–211, 228 warfare European 79–80, 81–82, 84, 85 See also specific wars between natives and settlers 33, 34, 50, 53–55, 54, 296–297, 299 unification and 128 warriors 4, 7, 9–10, 14–17, 19, 24, 34, 48–49, 53–56, 54, 131, 135, 306c, 308c weapons 48 See also specific weapons weaving 39, 49 Western Argentine Railway 176 wheat 29, 36, 38, 71, 75, 121, 138, 145–147, 223, 288–289, 310c whites 52, 68, 71, 77, 86, 297 See also Creoles wind mills 147 A Brief History of argentina wine industry 29, 36–37, 39, 60, 74, 119, 121, 142, 153, 157, 168 See also viticulture women 76, 106, 297 cautivas 134–135 in Congress 212 Creole 164 employment of 35, 164, 171–172, 199–200, 228 immigrants 153 indigenous 4, 9–10, 14, 16–19, 23–24, 31, 48, 50, 53, 55, 58, 75–76, 133 in the interior 121–122 Perón and 209, 212 rights of 216 rural 160 slaves 41 social control and 171, 172 women’s suffrage 212, 215, 216, 311c working class 35, 171 wood See timber wool 39, 74, 103, 109, 112, 121, 138, 145–146 working class, the 41, 138, 158–159, 166, 168, 172, 210, 216–217, 297, 298 Creole 163–166, 167 during de-Peronization 229–230 elites and 157–162 El Proceso and 252 employment and 195 Eva Perón and 210, 211, 212 Great Depression and 184 immigrant 171 under the Kirchners 276 during the liberal age 157–162 Mazorca and 126 mestizo 31 the military and 131, 228–230 Perón and 201, 203–206, 209, 213, 223, 228–229 peronista 227–232 populism and 204–206 prejudice against 154 unemployment and 271, 285–287 urban 170–173 working conditions 114–119, 201, 203 work rules 200 work slowdowns 229 World Bank 314c World Cup xii, 246, 312c World War I 148, 157, 171, 175, 192, 193 World War II 191, 192–193, 200, 203, 206 354 X Xerox 232 Y Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (Federal Petroleum Deposits/ YPF) 175, 180–182, 183t, 195t, 196–197, 225–226, 264, 271, 310c, 311c Yahati, Felipe 55 Yahati, José 55, 56 yellow fever epidemic of 1871 159 yerba x, 35, 36, 37–38, 39, 45, 59–60, 71 See also mate yerba mate See mate youth, campaign to reform the 230 YPF See Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (Federal Petroleum Deposits/YPF) Yrigoyen, Hipólito xi, xiii, 168, 170–171, 173, 182–184, 189, 196, 213, 237, 253, 310c, 311c death of 190–191 ouster of 184–187 public mourning for 191 Z zambos 94 See also blacks