McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy Second Edition McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto All text in the dictionary was published previously in the McGRAW-HILL DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TERMS, Sixth Edition, copyright ᭧ 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved McGRAW-HILL DICTIONARY OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, Second Edition, copyright ᭧ 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher 1234567890 DOC/DOC 09876543 ISBN 0-07-141044-9 This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing a minimum of 50% recycled, de-inked fiber This book was set in Helvetica Bold and Novarese Book by the Clarinda Company, Clarinda, Iowa It was printed and bound by RR Donnelley, The Lakeside Press McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs For more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw-Hill, Professional Publishing, Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2298 Or contact your local bookstore Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McGraw-Hill dictionary of geology and mineralogy — 2nd ed p cm “All text in this dictionary was published previously in the McGraw-Hill dictionary of scientific and technical terms, sixth edition, — T.p verso ISBN 0-07-141044-9 (alk paper) Geology—Dictionaries Mineralogy—Dictionaries I Title: Dictionary of geology and mineralogy II McGraw-Hill dictionary of scientific and technical terms 6th ed QE5.M3654 550Ј.3—dc21 2003 2002033173 Staff Mark D Licker, Publisher—Science Elizabeth Geller, Managing Editor Jonathan Weil, Senior Staff Editor David Blumel, Staff Editor Alyssa Rappaport, Staff Editor Charles Wagner, Digital Content Manager Renee Taylor, Editorial Assistant Roger Kasunic, Vice President—Editing, Design, and Production Joe Faulk, Editing Manager Frank Kotowski, Jr., Senior Editing Supervisor Ron Lane, Art Director Thomas G Kowalczyk, Production Manager Pamela A Pelton, Senior Production Supervisor Henry F Beechhold, Pronunciation Editor Professor Emeritus of English Former Chairman, Linguistics Program The College of New Jersey Trenton, New Jersey vi How to Use the Dictionary ALPHABETIZATION The terms in the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy, Second Edition, are alphabetized on a letter-by-letter basis; word spacing, hyphen, comma, solidus, and apostrophe in a term are ignored in the sequencing For example, an ordering of terms would be: abnormal fold a-b plane ACF diagram acre-yield Agassiz orogeny Age of Fishes FORMAT The basic format for a defining entry provides the term in boldface, the field is small capitals, and the single definition in lightface: term [FIELD] Definition A field may be followed by multiple definitions, each introduced by a boldface number: term [FIELD] Definition Definition Definition A simple cross-reference entry appears as: term See another term A cross reference may also appear in combination with definitions: term [FIELD] Definition See another term CROSS REFERENCING A cross-reference entry directs the user to the defining entry For example, the user looking up “abyssal” finds: abyssal See plutonic The user then turns to the “P” terms for the definition Cross references are also made from variant spellings, acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols aenigmatite See enigmatite aggradation See accretion barkhan See barchan ALSO KNOWN AS , etc A definition may conclude with a mention of a synonym of the term, a variant spelling, an abbreviation for the term, or other such information, introduced by “Also known as ,” “Also spelled ,” “Abbreviated ,” “Symbolized ,” “Derived from ” When a term has vii more than one definition, the positioning of any of these phrases conveys the extent of applicability For example: term [FIELD] Definition Also known as synonym Definition Symbolized T In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies only to the first definition; “Symbolized ” applies only to the second definition term [FIELD] Also known as synonym Definition Definition In the above arrangement, “Also known as ” applies to both definitions MINERAL FORMULAS Mineral definitions may include a formula indicating the composition viii Fields and Their Scope [GEOCHEM] geochemistry—The field that encompasses the investigation of the chemical composition of the earth, other planets, and the solar system and universe as a whole, as well as the chemical processes that occur within them [GEOL] geology—The study or science of earth, its history, and its life as recorded in the rocks; includes the study of the geologic features of an area, such as the geometry of rock formations, weathering and erosion, and sedimentation [GEOPHYS] geophysics—The branch of geology in which the principles and practices of physics are used to study the earth and its environment, that is, earth, air, and (by extension) space [MINERAL] mineralogy—The study of naturally occurring inorganic substances, called minerals, whether of terrestrial or extraterrestrial origin [PALEOBOT] paleobotany—The study of fossil plants and vegetation of the geologic past [PALEON] paleontology—The study of life in the geologic past as recorded by fossil remains [PETR] petrology—The branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks, especially igneous and metamorphic rocks ix Pronunciation Key Vowels a as in a¯ as in a¨ as in e as in e¯ as in i as in ı¯ as in o¯ as in o˙ as in u˙ as in u¨ as in ə as in au˙ as in o˙i as in yə as in yu¨ as in Consonants b as in bib, dribble ch as in charge, stretch d as in dog, bad f as in fix, safe g as in good, signal h as in hand, behind j as in joint, digit k as in cast, brick k as in Bach (used rarely) l as in loud, bell m as in mild, summer n as in new, dent n indicates nasalization of preceding vowel ŋ as in ring, single p as in pier, slip r as in red, scar s as in sign, post sh as in sugar, shoe t as in timid, cat th as in thin, breath th as in then, breathe v as in veil, weave z as in zoo, cruise zh as in beige, treasure bat, that bait, crate bother, father bet, net beet, treat bit, skit bite, light boat, note bought, taut book, pull boot, pool but, sofa crowd, power boil, spoil formula, spectacular fuel, mule Semivowels/Semiconsonants w as in wind, twin y as in yet, onion Stress (Accent) precedes syllable with primary stress precedes syllable with secondary stress ¦ Syllabication и Indicates syllable boundary when following syllable is unstressed precedes syllable with variable or indeterminate primary/ secondary stress x Preface The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy provides a compendium of more than 9000 terms that are central to a broad range of geological sciences and related fields The coverage in this Second Edition is focused on the areas of geochemistry, geology, geophysics, mineralogy, paleobotany, paleontology, and petrology, with new terms added and others revised as necessary Geology deals with the solid earth and the processes that formed and modified it as it evolved Related disciplines include the study of the physics of the earth (geophysics); earth chemistry, composition, and chemical changes (geochemistry); the composition, properties, and structure of minerals (mineralogy); the description, classification, origin, and evolution of rocks (petrology); and the study of ancient life (paleontology) All of the definitions are drawn from the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, Sixth Edition (2003) Each definition is classified according to the field with which it is primarily associated; if it is used in more than one area; it is identified by the general label [GEOLOGY] The pronunciation of each term is provided along with synonyms, acronyms, and abbreviations where appropriate A guide to the use of the Dictionary appears on pages vii-viii, explaining the alphabetical organization of terms, the format of the book, cross referencing, and how synonyms, variant spellings, abbreviations, mineral formulas, and similar information are handled The Pronunciation Key is provided on page x The Appendix provides conversion tables for commonly used scientific units as well as revised geologic time scale, periodic table, historical information, and useful listings of geological and mineralogical data It is the editors’ hope that the Second Edition of the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy will serve the needs of scientists, engineers, students, teachers, librarians, and writers for high-quality information, and that it will contribute to scientific literacy and communication Mark D Licker Publisher v Contents Preface v Staff vi How to Use the Dictionary vii Fields and Their Scope ix Pronunciation Key x Dictionary 1-404 Appendix 405-421 Equivalents of commonly used units for the U.S Customary System and the metric system 407 Conversion factors for the U.S Customary System, metric system, and International System 408 Periodic table 412 Principal regions of a standard earth model 413 Physical properties of some common rocks 413 Approximate concentration of ore elements in earth’s crust and in ores 414 Elemental composition of earth’s crust based on igneous and sedimentary rock 414 Some historical volcanic eruptions 415 Compositions of important rock types in the earth’s crust and the average continental crust 416 Dental formulas of some mammals 417 Geologic column and scale of time 418 Types of volcanic structure 419 Mohs scale 419 Hardness, specific gravity, and refractive indices of gem materials 420 Appendix Equivalents of commonly used units for the U.S Customary System and the metric system 1 1 inch ϭ 2.5 centimeters (25 millimeters) foot ϭ 0.3 meter (30 centimeters) yard ϭ 0.9 meter mile ϭ 1.6 kilometers 1 1 centimeter ϭ 0.4 inch meter ϭ 3.3 feet meter ϭ 1.1 yards kilometer ϭ 0.62 mile 1 1 inch ϭ 0.083 foot foot ϭ 0.33 yard (12 inches) yard ϭ feet (36 inches) mile ϭ 5280 feet (1760 yards) 407 acre ϭ 0.4 hectare acre ϭ 4047 square meters hectare ϭ 2.47 acres square meter ϭ 0.00025 acre gallon ϭ 3.8 liters fluid ounce ϭ 29.6 milliliters 32 fluid ounces ϭ 946.4 milliliters liter ϭ 1.06 quarts ϭ 0.26 gallon milliliter ϭ 0.034 fluid ounce quart ϭ 0.25 gallon (32 ounces; pints) pint ϭ 0.125 gallon (16 ounces) gallon ϭ quarts (8 pints) gram ϭ 0.035 ounce kilogram ϭ 2.2 pounds kilogram ϭ 1.1 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ton ounce ϭ 0.0625 pound pound ϭ 16 ounces ton ϭ 2000 pounds 1 1 quart ϭ 0.95 liter ounce ϭ 28.35 grams pound ϭ 0.45 kilogram ton ϭ 907.18 kilograms ЊC ϭ (ЊF Ϫ 32) Ϭ 1.8 Appendix ЊF ϭ (1.8 ϫ ЊC) ϩ 32 A Units of length Units cm m in ft yd mi 408 cm ϭ1 0.01 0.3937008 0.03280840 0.01093613 6.213712 ϫ 10Ϫ6 1m ϭ 100 39.37008 3.280840 1.093613 6.213712 ϫ 10Ϫ4 in ϭ 2.54 0.0254 0.08333333 0.02777777 1.578283 ϫ 10Ϫ5 ft ϭ 30.48 0.3048 12 0.3333333 1.893939 ϫ 10Ϫ4 yd ϭ 91.44 0.9144 36 5.681818 ϫ 10Ϫ4 mi ϭ 1.609344 ϫ 105 1.609344 ϫ 103 6.336 ϫ 104 5280 1760 B Units of area Units cm2 m2 in.2 ft2 yd2 mi2 cm2 ϭ1 10Ϫ4 0.1550003 1.076391 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1.195990 ϫ 10Ϫ4 3.861022 ϫ 10Ϫ11 m2 ϭ 104 1550.003 10.76391 1.195990 3.861022 ϫ 10Ϫ7 in.2 ϭ 6.4516 6.4516 ϫ 10Ϫ4 6.944444 ϫ 10Ϫ3 7.716049 ϫ 10Ϫ4 2.490977 ϫ 10Ϫ10 ft2 ϭ 929.0304 0.09290304 144 0.1111111 3.587007 ϫ 10Ϫ8 yd2 ϭ 8361.273 0.8361273 1296 3.228306 ϫ 10Ϫ7 mi2 ϭ 2.589988 ϫ 1010 2.589988 ϫ 106 4.014490 ϫ 109 2.78784 ϫ 107 3.0976 ϫ 106 Appendix Conversion factors for the U.S Customary System, metric system, and International System C Units of volume Units m3 cm3 in.3 liter ft3 qt gal m3 ϭ1 106 103 6.102374 ϫ 104 35.31467 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1.056688 264.1721 cm3 ϭ 10Ϫ6 10Ϫ3 0.06102374 3.531467 ϫ 10Ϫ5 1.056688 ϫ 10Ϫ3 2.641721 ϫ 10Ϫ4 liter ϭ 10Ϫ3 1000 61.02374 0.03531467 1.056688 0.2641721 in Ϫ5 ϭ 1.638706 ϫ 10 16.38706 0.01638706 5.787037 ϫ 10 0.01731602 4.329004 ϫ 10Ϫ3 ft3 ϭ 2.831685 ϫ 10Ϫ2 28316.85 28.31685 1728 2.992208 7.480520 qt ϭ 9.463529 ϫ 10Ϫ4 946.3529 0.9463529 57.75 0.03342014 0.25 gal (U.S.) ϭ 3.785412 ϫ 10Ϫ3 3785.412 3.785412 231 0.1336806 409 D Units of mass Units g kg Ϫ4 oz lb metric ton ton ϭ1 10Ϫ3 0.03527396 2.204623 ϫ 10Ϫ3 10Ϫ6 1.102311 ϫ 10Ϫ6 kg ϭ 1000 35.27396 2.204623 10Ϫ3 1.102311 ϫ 10Ϫ3 oz (avdp) ϭ 28.34952 0.02834952 0.0625 2.834952 ϫ 10Ϫ5 3.125 ϫ 10Ϫ5 lb (avdp) ϭ 453.5924 0.4535924 16 4.535924 ϫ 10Ϫ4 ϫ 10Ϫ4 1000 35273.96 2204.623 1.102311 907.1847 32000 2000 0.9071847 1 metric ton ϭ 108 ton ϭ 907184.7 Appendix 1g E Units of density Units g и cmϪ3 g и LϪ1, kg и mϪ3 oz и in.Ϫ3 lb и in.Ϫ3 lb и ftϪ3 lb и galϪ1 g и cmϪ3 ϭ1 1000 0.5780365 0.03612728 62.42795 8.345403 g и LϪ1, kg и mϪ3 ϭ 10Ϫ3 5.780365 ϫ 10Ϫ4 3.612728 ϫ 10Ϫ5 0.06242795 8.345403 ϫ 10Ϫ3 oz и in.Ϫ3 ϭ 1.729994 1729.994 0.0625 108 14.4375 lb и in.Ϫ3 ϭ 27.67991 27679.91 16 1728 231 Ϫ3 Ϫ3 Ϫ4 lb и ft ϭ 0.01601847 16.01847 9.259259 ϫ 10 5.787037 ϫ 10 0.1336806 lb и galϪ1 ϭ 0.1198264 119.8264 4.749536 ϫ 10Ϫ3 4.329004 ϫ 10Ϫ3 7.480519 410 F Units of pressure Units Pa, N и mϪ2 dyn и cmϪ2 bar kgf и cmϪ2 atm mmHg (torr) lbf и in.Ϫ2 in Hg Pa, N и mϪ2 ϭ 10 10Ϫ5 9.869233 ϫ 10Ϫ6 1.019716 ϫ 10Ϫ5 7.500617 ϫ 10Ϫ3 2.952999 ϫ 10Ϫ4 1.450377 ϫ 10Ϫ4 dyn и cmϪ2 ϭ 0.1 10Ϫ6 9.869233 ϫ 10Ϫ7 1.019716 ϫ 10Ϫ6 7.500617 ϫ 10Ϫ4 2.952999 ϫ 10Ϫ5 1.450377 ϫ 10Ϫ5 bar ϭ 105 106 0.9869233 1.019716 750.0617 29.52999 14.50377 atm ϭ 101325 1013250 1.01325 1.033227 760 29.92126 14.69595 kgf и cmϪ2 ϭ 98066.5 980665 0.980665 0.9678411 735.5592 28.95903 14.22334 mmHg (torr) ϭ 133.3224 1333.224 1.333224 ϫ 103 1.315789 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1.359510 ϫ 10Ϫ3 0.03937008 0.01933678 in Hg ϭ 3386.388 33863.88 0.03386388 0.03342105 0.03453155 25.4 0.4911541 lbf и in.Ϫ2 ϭ 6894.757 68947.57 0.06894757 0.06804596 0.07030696 51.71493 2.036021 Appendix Conversion factors for the U.S Customary System, metric system, and International System (cont.) G Units of energy g mass Units (energy equiv) g mass ϭ (energy equiv) J eV cal 8.987552 ϫ 1013 5.609589 ϫ 1032 2.148076 ϫ 103 6.241510 ϫ 1018 BtuIT calIT 2.146640 ϫ 1013 kWh hp-h ft-lbf ft3 и lbf и in.Ϫ2 liter-atm 8.518555 ϫ 1010 2.496542 ϫ 107 3.347918 ϫ 107 6.628878 ϫ 1013 4.603388 ϫ 1011 8.870024 ϫ 1011 0.2390057 0.2388459 9.478172 ϫ 10Ϫ4 2.777777 ϫ 10Ϫ7 3.725062 0.7375622 5.121960 ϫ 10Ϫ3 9.869233 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1 eV ϭ 1.782662 ϫ 10Ϫ33 1.602176 ϫ 10Ϫ19 3.829293 3.826733 ϫ 10Ϫ20 ϫ 10Ϫ20 1.518570 ϫ 10Ϫ22 4.450490 ϫ 10Ϫ26 5.968206 ϫ 10Ϫ26 1.181705 8.206283 ϫ 10Ϫ19 ϫ 10Ϫ22 1.581225 ϫ 10Ϫ21 cal ϭ 4.655328 ϫ 10Ϫ14 4.184 2.611448 ϫ 1019 0.9993312 3.965667 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1.1622222 ϫ 10Ϫ6 1.558562 ϫ 10Ϫ6 3.085960 2.143028 ϫ 10Ϫ2 0.04129287 calIT ϭ 4.658443 ϫ 10Ϫ14 4.1868 2.613195 ϫ 1019 1.000669 3.968321 ϫ 10Ϫ3 1.163 ϫ 10Ϫ6 1.559609 ϫ 10Ϫ6 3.088025 2.144462 ϫ 10Ϫ2 0.04132050 BtuIT ϭ 1.173908 ϫ 10Ϫ11 1055.056 6.585141 ϫ 1021 252.1644 251.9958 2.930711 ϫ 10Ϫ4 3.930148 ϫ 10Ϫ4 778.1693 5.403953 10.41259 kWh ϭ 4.005540 ϫ 10Ϫ8 3600000 2.246944 ϫ 1025 860420.7 859845.2 3412.142 1.341022 2655224 18349.06 35529.24 hp-h ϭ 2.986931 ϫ 10Ϫ8 2384519 1.675545 ϫ 1025 641615.6 641186.5 2544.33 0.7456998 1980000 13750 26494.15 ft-lbf ϭ 1.508551 ϫ 10Ϫ14 1.355818 8.462351 ϫ 1018 0.3240483 0.3238315 1.285067 ϫ 10Ϫ3 3.766161 ϫ 10Ϫ7 5.050505 ϫ 10Ϫ7 6.944444 ϫ 10Ϫ3 0.01338088 ft3 lbf и in.Ϫ2 ϭ 2.172313 ϫ 10Ϫ12 195.2378 1.218579 ϫ 1021 46.66295 46.63174 0.1850497 5.423272 ϫ 10Ϫ5 7.272727 ϫ 10Ϫ5 144 1.926847 101.325 6.324210 ϫ 1020 24.21726 24.20106 0.09603757 2.814583 ϫ 10Ϫ5 3.774419 ϫ 10Ϫ5 74.73349 0.5189825 1 liter-atm ϭ 1.127393 ϫ 10Ϫ12 Appendix ϭ 1.112650 ϫ 10Ϫ14 411 1J Periodic table 1s s 412 f Li Be Lithium Beryllium 11 12 Na Mg Sodium Magnesium 19 20 K Potassium p H He Hydrogen Helium 18 13 14 15 16 17 10 B C N O F Ne Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon 13 14 15 16 17 18 Al Si P S Cl Ar Argon 10 11 12 Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Xenon d 37 38 39 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Francium Radium Lawrencium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Rutherfordium Molybdenum Technetium 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lanthanum Cerium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Appendix (The atomic numbers are listed above the symbols identifying the elements The heavy line separates metals from nonmetals.) Appendix Principal regions of a standard earth model Approximate depth range, mi (km) Layer Ocean layer Upper and lower crust Lithosphere below the crust Asthenosphere Upper mantle above phase or compositional changes near 240 mi (400 km) Transition region between phase or compositional changes near 240 and 416 mi (400 and 670 km) Lower mantle above core-mantle boundary layer Core-mantle boundary layer Outer core Inner core 0–1.8 (0–3) 1.8–15 (3–24) 15–50 (24–80) 50–140 (80–220) 140–240 (220–400) 240–416 (400–670) 416–1703 1703–1796 1796–3200 3200–3959 (670–2741) (2741–2891) (2891–5150) (5150–6371) Physical properties of some common rocks Rock Igneous Granite Basalt Specific gravity Porosity, % Compressive strength, psi* Tensile strength, psi* 2.67 2.75 1 30,000–50,000 25,000–30,000 500–1000 5,000–15,000 5,000–10,000 2,000–20,000 100–200 Sedimentary Sandstone Shale Limestone 2.1–2.5 1.9–2.4 2.2–2.5 Metamorphic Marble Quartzite Slate 2.5–2.8 2.5–2.6 2.6–2.8 5–30 7–25 2–20 0.5–2 1–2 0.5–5 *l psi ϭ 6.9 kPa 413 10,000–30,000 15,000–40,000 15,000–30,000 400–850 700–1000 Appendix Approximate concentration of ore elements in earth’s crust and ln ores Element ln average igneous rocks, % ln ores, % Iron Copper Zinc Lead Tin Silver Gold Uranium Tungsten Molybdenum 5.0 0.007 0.013 0.0016 0.004 0.00001 0.0000005 0.0002 0.003 0.001 50 0.5–5 1.3–13 1.6–16 0.01*–1 0.05 0.0000015*–0.01 0.2 0.5 0.6 *Placer deposits Elemental composition of earth’s crust based on igneous and sedimentary rock Element Weight % Atomic % Volume % Oxygen Silicon Titanium Aluminum Iron Magnesium Calcium Sodium Potassium Hydrogen 46.71 27.69 0.62 8.07 5.05 2.08 3.65 2.75 2.58 0.14 60.5 20.5 0.3 6.2 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.5 1.4 3.0 94.24 0.51 0.03 0.44 0.37 0.28 1.04 1.21 1.88 414 Appendix Some historical volcanic eruptions Year Estimated casualties Merapi (Indonesia) Kelut (Indonesia) Vesuvius (Italy) Etna (Italy) Merapi (Indonesia) Awu (Indonesia) Papandayan (Indonesia) Laki (Iceland) 1006 1586 1631 1669 1672 1711 1772 1783 Ͼ1,000 10,000 18,000 10,000 Ͼ300 3,200 2,957 10,000 Asama (Japan) Unzen (Japan) Mayon (Philippines) Tambora (Indonesia) Galunggung (Indonesia) Awu (Indonesia) Krakatau (Indonesia) Awu (Indonesia) Mont Pele´e, Martinique (West Indies) Soufrie`re, St Vincent (West Indies) Taal (Philippines) Kelut (Indonesia) Lamington (Papua New Guinea) Merapi (Indonesia) Agung (Indonesia) Taal (Philippines) Mount St Helens (United States) El Chicho´n (Mexico) Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) Unzen (Japan) Pinatubo (Philippines) 1783 1792 1814 1815 1822 1856 1883 1892 1902 1902 1911 1919 1951 1951 1963 1965 1980 1982 1985 1991 1991 1,151 15,000 1,200 92,000 4,000 2,800 36,000 1,500 36,000 1,565 1,332 5,000 3,000 1,300 3,800 350 57 Ͼ2,000 Ͼ25,000 41 Ͼ300 Merapi (Indonesia) 1994 Ͼ41 Soufrie`re Hills, Montserrat (West Indies) 1997 19 Volcano Principal causes of death Explosions Lahars (mudflows) Lava flows, mudflows Lava flows, explosions Nue´es ardentes, lahars Lahars Explosions Lava flows, volcanic gas, starvation* Lava flows, lahars Lahars, tsunami Nue´es ardentes, lava flows Starvation* Lahars Lahars Tsunami Nue´es ardentes, lahars Nue´es ardentes Nue´es ardentes Explosions Lahars Nue´es ardentes, explosions Lahars Nue´es ardentes, lahars Explosions Lateral blast, mudflows Explosions, nue´es ardentes Mudflows Nue´es ardentes Nue´es ardentes, mudflows, ash fall (roof collapse) Nue´es ardentes from dome collapse Nue´es ardentes *Deaths directly attributable to the destruction or reduction of food crops, livestock, agricultural lands, pasturage, and other disruptions of food chain 415 Composition Anorthosite Peridotite Oceanic basalt Andesite Dacite Chemical 416 SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MgO CaO Na2O K2O *Major constituent †Subordinate mineral Granite Sandy shale Continental crust upper mi (15 km) 70.5 14.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 3.5 4.3 64.0 14.5 1.5 3.5 2.2 2.6 3.2 2.0 65.5 14.0 3.5 2.0 1.7 2.5 1.5 4.0 66.0 0.5 15.5 2.0 3.0 2.0 4.2 3.5 3.0 — — — — † * * * — — — — — — * † * * * † — — — — † * * * * * — † — † * * * * — — Weight, % 54.0 24.0 2.5 1.5 10.0 4.5 44.0 2.5 1.0 8.0 40.0 2.5 02 50.0 1.5 15.5 1.5 8.0 7.0 10.5 2.9 25 60.0 17.5 3.0 3.2 2.8 6.0 3.5 3.0 65.5 15.0 2.5 2.0 3.7 3.8 2.4 — † † — * — — — — — * † * — — — — — — — † † * — * — — — — — — — * * * † — — — — — — — † * † * — — — Mineralogical Olivine Fe, T, Mg oxides Pyroxene Amphibole Plagioclase K-feldspar Micas Quartz Chlorites Clay minerals Granodiorite Graywacke 66.0 0.5 15.5 2.0 2.6 2.0 4.0 3.6 2.8 Approximate volume — — — † * * † * — — Appendix Compositions of important rock types in the earth’s crust and the average continental crust Appendix Dental formulas of some mammals Teeth Animal I C Pm M Total Human Cony Beaver Cat Dog Sheep Lynx Rat Horse Mole Squirrel Reindeer Pig Common seal Skunk Raccoon Bear 2/2 3/3 1/1 3/3 3/3 0/3 3/3 1/1 3/3 3/3 1/1 0/3 3/3 3/2 3/3 3/3 3/3 1/1 1/1 0/0 1/1 1/1 0/1 1/1 0/0 1/1 1/1 0/0 0/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 2/2 4/4 1/1 3/2 4/4 3/3 2/2 0/0 4/4 4/4 2/1 3/3 4/4 4/4 3/3 4/4 4/4 3/3 4/4 3/3 1/1 2/3 3/3 1/1 3/3 3/3 3/3 3/3 3/3 3/3 1/1 1/2 2/2 2/3 32 48 20 30 42 32 28 16 44 44 22 32 44 34 34 40 42 417 Appendix Geologic column and scale of time Eon Era ↑ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ ↑ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Cenozoic Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ ↓ ↑ Ȋ Period 1.8 ↑ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Pliocene Miocene 23 Oligocene Tertiary Ȋ Ȋ ↓ 38 Eocene 54 Paleocene 65 Cretaceous 144 Jurassic Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ ↓ Ȋ ↓ Triassic Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ ↓ 0.01 Pleistocene Mesozoic Paleozoic Dates (104 years before present) Holocene Quaternary Phanerozoic ↑ Ȋ Ȋ Ȋ Epoch 208 245 Permian 286 Pennsylvanian 325 Mississippian 360 Devonian 410 Silurian 440 Ordovician 505 Cambrian 544 Proterozoic* No subdivisions in wide use Archean* No subdivisions in wide use Hadean No subdivisions 2500 3800 4500 *Proterozoic plus Archean also called Precambrian 418 Appendix Types of volcanic structure Name Characteristics Shield Cinder cone Spatter cone Composite cone Caldera Plug dome Cryptovolcanic structures Low height, broad area; formed by successive fluid flows accumulating around a single, central vent Cone of moderate size with apex truncated; circular in plan, gently sloping sides; composed of pyroclastic particles, usually poorly consolidated Small steep-sided cone with well-defined crater composed of pyroclastic particles, well consolidated (agglomerate) Composed of interlayered flows and pyroclastics; flows from sides (flank flows) common, as are radial dike swarms; slightly concave in profile, with central crater Basins of great size but relatively shallow; formed by explosive decapitation of stratocones, by collapse into underlying magma chamber, or both Domal piles of viscous (usually rhyolitic) lava, growing by subsurface accretion and accompanied by outer fragmentation Circular areas of highly fractured rocks in regions generally free of other structural disturbances; believed to have formed either by subsurface explosions or by sinking of cylindrical rock masses over magma chambers Mohs scale* Hardness Mineral Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Hardness Mineral 10 Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond *Hardness or resistance to scratching is defined by comparison with 10 selected minerals, which are numbered in order of increasing hardness Minerals lower in the scale are scratched by those with higher numbers 419 Appendix Hardness, specific gravity, and refractive indices of gem materials Gem material Hardness (Mohs scale) Specific gravity Refractive index Amber Beryl Synthetic emerald 2–2 1/2 1/2–8 1/2–8 1.05 2.67–2.85 2.66–2.7 Chrysoberyl and synthetic Corundum and synthetic Diamond Synthetic cubic Zirconia Feldspar Garnet Almandite Pyrope Rhodolite Andradite Grossularite Spessartite Hematite Jade Jadeite Nephrite Lapis lazuli Malachite Opal Pearl Peridot Quartz Crystalline and synthetic Chalcedony Spinel and flux synthetic Synthetic spinel, flame Spodumene Topaz Tourmaline Turquois Zircon Metamict Zoisite (tanzanite) 1/2 3.73 1.54 1.57–1.58 1.56–1.563 to 1.57–1.58 1.746–1.755 4.0 1.76–1.77 10 1/2 6–6 1/2 3.52 5.80 2.55–2.75 2.42 2.15 1.5–1.57 1/2 7–7 1/2 7–7 1/2 1/2–7 7–7 1/2 1/2–6 1/2 4.05 3.78 3.84 3.84 3.61 4.15 5.20 1.79 1.745 1.76 1.875 1.74 1.80 1/2–7 6–6 1/2 5–6 1/2–4 5–6 1/2 3–4 1/2–7 3.34 2.95 2.4–3.05 3.34–3.95 2.15 2.7 3.34 1.66–1.68 1.61–1.63 1.50 1.66–1.91 1.45 1/2–7 2.66 2.60 1.54–1.55 1.535–1.539 8 6–7 7–7 1/2 5–6 1/2 6–7 3.60 3.64 3.18 3.53 3.06 2.76 4.70 4.00 3.35 1.718 1.73 1.66–1.676 1.61–1.63 1.62–1.64 1.61–1.65 1.925–1.98 1.81 1.691–1.70 420 1.654–1.690 [...]... evaporation of water in a depression and deposition of its fine sediment and dissolved minerals { alиkə lı¯ flat } alkali-lime index [PETR] The percentage by weight of silica in a sequence of igneous rocks on a variation diagram where the weight percentages of CaO and of K2O and Na2O are equal { alиkə lı¯ lı¯m inиdeks } alkaline soil [GEOL] Soil containing soluble salts of magnesium, sodium, or the like, and. .. Age of Fishes [GEOL] An informal designation of the Silurian and Devonian periods of geologic time { a¯j əv fishиəz } Age of Mammals [GEOL] An informal designation of the Cenozoic era of geologic time { a¯j əv mamиəlz } Age of Man [GEOL] An informal designation of the Quaternary period of geologic time { a¯j əv man } age ratio [GEOL] The ratio of the amount of daughter to parent isotope in a mineral... extrusive rock of volcanic origin composed largely of plagioclase feldspar (oligoclase or andesine) with smaller amounts of darkcolored mineral (hornblende, biotite, or pyroxene), the extrusive equivalent of diorite { anиdə zı¯t } andesite line [GEOL] The postulated geographic and petrographic boundary between the andesite-dacite-rhyolite rock association of the margin of the Pacific Ocean and the olivine-basalt-trachyte... resulting from collapse of the roof of a batholith; the volcanic rocks grade into parent plutonic rocks { erиeиəl i rəpиshən } areal geology [GEOL] Distribution and form of rocks or geologic units of any relatively large area of the earth’s surface { erиeиəl je¯ a¨lиəиje¯ } arenaceous [GEOL] Of sediment or sedimentary rocks that have been derived from sand or that contain sand Also known as arenarious;... evaporation of water; resembles marble and differs from gypsum in lack of water of hydration and hardness { an hı¯ drı¯t i vapи ə rı¯t } anhydrock [PETR] A sedimentary rock chiefly made of anhydrite { an hi dra¨k } Animikean [GEOL] The middle subdivision of Proterozoic geologic time Also known as Penokean; Upper Huronian { ə¦nimиə¦ke¯иən } animikite [GEOL] An ore of silver, composed of a mixture of sulfides,... structural emplacement of eugeosynclinal rocks over microgeosynclinal rocks { antиlər o˙ ra¨jиəиne¯ } Ao horizon [GEOL] That portion of the A horizon of a soil profile which is composed of pure humus { ¦a¯¦o¯ hə rı¯zиən } Aoo horizon [GEOL] Uppermost portion of the A horizon of a soil profile which consists of undecomposed vegetable litter { ¦a¯¦o¯¦o¯ hə rı¯zиən } Apatemyidae [PALEON] A family of extinct rodentlike... projection of lineation in the plane of a vertical cross section { ə paиrənt plənj } apparent precession See apparent wander { ə paиrənt pri seshиən } apparent vertical [GEOPHYS] The direction of the resultant of gravitational and all other accelerations Also known as dynamic vertical { ə paиrənt verdиəиkəl } apparent wander [GEOPHYS] Apparent change in the direction of the axis of rotation of a spinning... to violet mineral consisting of a hydrous subsilicate of calcium, iron, magnesium, and sodium, and occurring in amorphous masses { aи lə wisиe¯ ı¯t } Alpides [GEOL] Great east-west structural belt including the Alps of Europe and the Himalayas and related mountains of Asia; mostly folded in Tertiary times { alи pə de¯z } alpine [GEOL] Similar to or characteristic of a lofty mountain or mountain system... containing iron and titanium and found in irregular masses in pegmatite [PETR] A dike rock composed of mostly quartz, some orthoclase, and accessory mica and apatite { arиə zo¯ nı¯t } Arkansas stone [PETR] A variety of novaculite quarried in Arkansas { a¨rиkən so˙ sto¯n } arkite [PETR] A feldspathoid-rich rock consisting largely of pseudoleucite and nepheline, subordinate melanite and pyroxene, and accessory... plain { ash fe¯ld } ash flow [GEOL] 1 An avalanche of volcanic ash, generally a highly heated mixture of volcanic gases and ash, traveling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground Also known as glowing avalanche; incandescent tuff flow 2 A deposit of volcanic ash and other debris resulting from such a flow and lying on the surface of the ground { ash flo¯ } ash-flow tuff See ignimbrite