KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG CHNG VIII NG LC CNH TRANH Trng tõm ca chng ny l v hot ng c trng ca ch ngha t bn, tc l cnh tranh, cỏc quỏ trỡnh tng tỏc nng ng trờn th trng gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn Cnh tranh kinh t l quỏ trỡnh tỏc ng n nhng ngi bỏn cnh tranh (cng nh nhng ngi mua cnh tranh) h chp nhn b chi phớ tỡm kim v th nghim tri thc mi Ngi mua v ngi bỏn tham gia vo hp ng trao i quyn ti sn vi nhau, thit lp nhng mc giỏ cú tỏc dng phi hp v thụng tin ti ngi khỏc Quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh gia cỏc ch ti sn cng giỳp hn ch nhng sai sút khụng trỏnh thụng qua tớn hiu thua l (loss signal) Chng no m ngi mua cũn t nhy bộn v chu b chi phớ giao dch tỡm kim thụng tin, chng ú cnh tranh kinh t gia cỏc nh cung cp cũn khuyn khớch vic i mi sn phm v quy trỡnh sn xut Chỳng ta s lm ni bt vai trũ ca nh cung cp cú tinh thn doanh nghip, v vai trũ ca nhng th ch h tr cho cỏc nh tiờn phong h th nghim nhng ý tng i mi vi hy vng to li nhun Chỳng ta cng s ch rng hnh vi can thip chớnh tr vo quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh s lm xúi mũn cnh tranh v gim mc cn thit ca vic phi b chi phớ i mi Cui cựng, chỳng ta s vt ngoi cnh tranh khuụn kh mt th trng n l v xem xột cng cnh tranh trờn bỡnh din ton b h thng kinh t Chỳng ta s nhn thy cỏc doanh nhõn cnh tranh ln mt ngnh li thng to iu kin cho thnh cụng thng mi nhng ngnh khỏc, vy m nhúm doanh nhõn cnh tranh ny li h tr cho nhúm doanh nhõn cnh tranh quỏ trỡnh i mi v to li nhun Cỏc nn kinh t cnh tranh cú nhng li th kinh t v phi kinh t ỏng k; cỏc ch ti sn thng xuyờn ng trc thỏch thc khai thỏc ti sn v tỡm kim tri thc, nh ú quyn lc b kim soỏt v tin b kinh t c theo ui Vỡ vy, ngi ta s cho rng cnh tranh kinh t xng ỏng c thỳc y v bo v K c quyn thõu túm cho riờng mỡnh nhng gỡ m tt c mi ngi u ỏng c hng mt cỏch t k c quyn no ly i cụng vic ca mt ngi tc l ó ly i cuc sng ca ngi ú nhng hng hoỏ c quyn lnh vc thng mi v giao thụng l i ngc li quyn la chn v s t (Lut gia ngi Anh Sir Edward Coke [1552-1634], trớch dn tỏc phm ca Walker, 1988, trang 111-112) Chớnh s cn mn ca i sng thng mi ó lm mt dn kiu lao ng nhm chỏn dai dng i sng thng mi giỳp to nhng cỏch thc mi m v tỏo bo trỏnh nú, khụng ch trờn nhng dõy chuyn lp rỏp v cỏc nh mỏy m cũn cỏc gia ỡnh v trờn nhng nụng trang (Jane Jacobs, Systems of Survival [Cỏc h thng sinh tn], 1992) 227 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG Ch ngha t bn, xột v bn cht, l mt hỡnh thỏi hay phng thc bin i kinh t v khụng bao gi cú th ng yờn Xung lc c bn giỳp ng v trỡ s hnh ca c mỏy t bn ch ngha n t cỏc hng hoỏ tiờu dựng mi, t cỏc phng thc sn xut hay ti mi, t cỏc th trng, v t cỏc hỡnh thỏi t chc cụng nghip mi m hot ng kinh doanh t bn ch ngha to (Joseph A Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy [Ch ngha t bn, ch ngha xó hi v dõn ch], 1991) 8.1 Cnh tranh: s ganh ua v quyn la chn Cnh tranh vi vai trũ phng thc khỏm phỏ Cỏc quyn t hu c trao i thụng qua hp ng t nguyn nhm ch ng a chỳng vo khai thỏc Chng hn, mt ch t bn cú th phi mua sm hng hoỏ t bn (capital goodi), thuờ nhõn cụng cựng cỏc chuyờn gia lnh ngh v hiu bit khỏc, v mua nguyờn liu thụ bt u hot ng sn xut Nhng hỡnh thc s dng ti sn m cỏc ch ti sn cú th mng tng li ph thuc vo tri thc ca h, hn ch v mt th cht (constitutionally limited), nh chỳng ta ó nhn thy Chng 3: cỏc cỏ nhõn cú s bt trc xung quanh (sideways uncertainty) v nhng gỡ m ngi khỏc ang lm v s bt trc phớa trc (forward uncertainty) v nhng gỡ s din tng lai Khi hon cnh thay i, kho tri thc m h tip thu quỏ kh s mt giỏ tr Vic thõu nhn tri thc mi v cp nht hn thỡ li tn kộm v ri ro, nh chỳng ta ó bit, vỡ ngi ch cú nng lc hu hn thu thp v hp th thụng tin nhm to tri thc mi thụng qua quỏ trỡnh t Hn th, quỏ trỡnh ny li d dn ti sai sút: nhng gỡ m ngi ta nhn thc cú th l khụng ỳng, h cú th suy din sai t tri thc quỏ kh ca mỡnh, h cú th d oỏn sai mt s h qu nht nh t hnh ng ca mỡnh, v h cú th phi i mt vi nhng khú khn khụn lng thc hin quyt nh s dng ti sn vt cht, lao ng v tri thc ca mỡnh Thc t ny gi lờn ba cõu hi quan trng, ú l: S vụ minh mang tớnh th cht (constitutional ignorance) cú th gim bt bng cỏch no? Tri thc hu ớch cú th phõn tỏn bng cỏch no? Vic s dng tri thc cú th c kim soỏt nh th no m bo sai sút khụng kộo di v h thng khụng b mt n nh? Lun im m chỳng ta s lm sỏng t chng ny l ch: Vic nhng ngi mua v ngi bỏn riờng r s dng cỏc quyn ti sn theo hng cnh tranh hn nhng gii phỏp tt nht cho nhng ny; õy l nhng gii phỏp m n nhõn loi ó khỏm phỏ ra, chc chn l tt hn so vi phng thc k hoch hoỏ trung cng nh k hoch ca ú mt bn tay hu hỡnh ỏp t Cnh tranh kinh t l mt quỏ trỡnh tng tỏc mang tớnh tin hoỏ nng ng (evolutionary-dynamic) ca ngi m qua ú ngi ta c thỳc y theo ui t li vỡ h cú kh nng ni b hoỏ cỏc chi phớ v li ớch ca vic s dng ti sn Trong quỏ trỡnh y, h em li li ớch cho ngi khỏc nh l h qu t s i Hng hoỏ s dng vo vic sn xut nhng hng hoỏ khỏc (ND) 228 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG mu cu t li ca mỡnh S tng tỏc ny din trờn th trng, ni gp g gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn ca nhng hng hoỏ v dch v kh d thay th (Hỡnh 8.1) Quỏ trỡnh tng tỏc v trao i, ú mi ngi khỏm phỏ v th nghim tri thc mi, ụi c gi l catallaxy Trong kinh t hc thng trung vo hin tng khan him v s thc hnh kinh t (economising) thỡ catallaxy li nhn mnh nhng phng thc khỏm phỏ nng ng: mi ngi khỏm phỏ cỏc nhu cu mi v nhng phng tin mi nhm tho chỳng nh th no Thụng thng, ngi mua ớt hn ngi bỏn Ngi bỏn cnh tranh ln t mỡnh vo v th cú li cho hot ng trao i tim tng vi ngi mua v h b chi phớ giao dch lm iu ú Tng t, ngi mua cng cnh tranh ln t mỡnh vo v th thun li cho giao dch hp ng vi nh cung cp, ng thi h b chi phớ tỡm kim thụng tin v nh v cho mỡnh hũng t c mt tho thun cú li Ngi bỏn s tỡm cỏch a nhng hng hoỏ tt hn so vi nhng th m ngi khỏc ang cho bỏn, v ngi mua tỏo bo cng s tỡm cỏch ginh ly mt v th cnh tranh cho phộp h thu hỳt c mt lot li cho mi t phớa ngi bỏn Ngi mua v ngi bỏn qua ú cnh tranh ln cú tri thc v hng hoỏ thay th v i tỏc trao i tt hn Phng ỏn thay th õy l th c mụ t nh mụn thi u cui cựng ngy (nightcap competition): s tip ni d chu ca cỏi cỏch m theo ú nh cung cp thỡ luụn sn xut v tip th hng hoỏ, cũn ngi mua thỡ c vic chp nhn nhng gỡ ang ngu nhiờn c mi cho khụng thớch phi chu chi phớ thụng tin Thụng tin v tri thc mi khụng n vi ngi bỏn v ngi mua cnh tranh m khụng gõy tn kộm Cng cnh tranh gia nhng thnh viờn tim tng c hai bờn th trng tu thuc vo mc sn sng chu chi phớ giao dch ca h, loi chi phớ nh chỳng ta ó thy mang c im tai hi l phi b trc xut hin mt kh nng rừ rng v li nhun.1 n lt, s sn sng chu chi phớ thụng tin s khụng ch ph thuc vo tớnh tũ mũ, tớnh sỏng to, tớnh tỏo bo, ng c tớch ly v s sn sng gỏnh chu ri ro ca cỏc nh cnh tranh khỏc nhau, m cũn ph thuc vo c khung kh th ch cho h hot ng (Kirzner, 1973, 1997) Nu cỏc th ch cng ng khin cho vic tỡm kim thụng tin tng i ớt tn kộm v giỳp to s tin tng ngi ta cú th ng phú vi nhng thụng tin kộm rừ rng hn thỡ hot ng tỡm kim thụng tin s din mnh m Ngc li, nu cỏc th ch nghốo nn v m h, ú chi phớ thụng tin v giao dch cao, ngi mua v ngi bỏn s khụng u t nhiu vo cụng vic tỡm kim thụng tin Vỡ vy, h s khỏm phỏ ớt tri thc hu ớch hn v nhỡn chung cú l s t c mc tng trng kinh t thp hn c bit, iu quan trng õy l kh nng v s sn sng lm nờn nhng khỏm phỏ ỏng ngc nhiờn: phỏt hin nhng tri thc m ngi khỏm phỏ khụng cú ly mt ý nim m h no trc khỏm phỏ ch khụng ch l kh nng tỡm kim thụng tin c v nhng m ngi ta ó cú s hiu bit no y t trc (mc 3.1) Israel Kirzner (1997, trang 72), bi kho lun v kinh t hc trng phỏi o, ó cho thy rừ iu ny ụng vit: 229 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG Khụng h bit mỡnh s tỡm kim iu gỡ, m cng khụng h trin khai bt k k thut tỡm kim ch ý no, nh doanh nghip, cú th núi, luụn dừi mt v phớa chõn tri, sn sng lm nờn nhng khỏm phỏ mi Mi khỏm phỏ nh th s i kốm vi mt cm giỏc ngc nhiờn (vi s vụ minh khụng th lý gii trc ú) Tinh thn doanh nghip l tinh thn luụn sn sng ún nhn bt ng, luụn sn sng cú nhng bc i cn thit thu li thụng qua nhng bt ng ú í nim v khỏm phỏ cú tớnh trung dung gia ý nim v thụng tin c ch ý to lý thuyt tỡm kim chun tc (standard search theoryi) v ý nim v thnh qu hon ton ngoi mong i t s ngu nhiờn thun tuý Hot ng tỡm kim tri thc ca ngi mua nhy bộn v quan tõm úng vai trũ then cht vic cung cp nhng sn phm cỏch tõn trờn th trng Ngi mua phi u t thi gian v cụng sc tỡm nhng th mi m ng thi phi ganh ua ln hũng tỡm kim nhng tho thun c bit v nhng sn phm mi l Nu nhng khỏch hng tim nng ca mt phn mm mỏy tớnh c s dng nhng gỡ h cú m khụng tỡm kim chng trỡnh ci tin mi thỡ s tin b lnh vc lp trỡnh phn mm s nhanh chúng chm li Do vy, s nhy bộn ca ngi mua bt k h cú ngn ngu cỏc mỏy tớnh v lựng sc trờn Internet hay khụng úng vai trũ then cht vic thỳc y nh cung cp u t nõng cao tri thc iu ny gii thớch ti cỏc th trng hay i mi li ũi hi nhng khỏch hng kht khe v ti nhu cu ch ng, tinh t li rt hu ớch cho nhng ngnh ngh phỏt t (Porter, 1990) Khi khụng cú s thay th gn gi no, vỡ th khụng cú hnh vi cnh tranh no mt bờn th trng, ú l c quyn bỏn (mt ngi bỏn nht monopoly) hay c quyn mua (mt ngi mua nht monopsony) Nhng ngi khụng cú i th thỡ khụng cú ng c b chi phớ thụng tin, v chuyn tỡm kim thụng tin ớt c chỳ ý Tuy nhiờn, mt nn kinh t khụng ngng tin trin, ngi mua v ngi bỏn cú th khụng bao gi tin chc l mỡnh s nm gi v th ú lõu di Chng hn, ngi mua cú th tỡm thy nhng hng hoỏ thay th mi nc khỏc v tin hnh nhp khu; hay cỏc nh cung cp mt ngnh khỏc cú th phỏt minh nhng hng hoỏ gn gi thay th cho nhng th m nh c quyn ang cho bỏn Vớ d, cỏc cụng ty c quyn ng st th k 19, m vi mt s nh quan sỏt ng thi thỡ chỳng dng nh ó giúng lờn hi chuụng bỏo t cho ch ngha t bn thi by gi, phỏt hin i th mi xut hin di hỡnh thc xe hi v xe ti Thc t ny cho thy phn ln cỏc cụng ty c quyn u cú th b cnh tranh V ú chớnh l iu buc ngi bỏn nht phi tham gia vo hot ng tỡm kim tri thc phũng xa Nh vy, quyn lc th trng thng b kim soỏt bi s cnh tranh tim tng (potential rivalry), ch khụng ch l cnh tranh thc t i Lý thuyt tỡm kim nghiờn cu cỏch thc m ngi mua v ngi bỏn thu thp thụng tin v tỡnh hỡnh th trng cng nh vic cỏc i tng tham gia th trng tim nng hp li vi nh th no Vic ỏp dng lý thuyt ny vo th trng lao ng c nh kinh t hc ngi M George Stigler (1911-1981) xng nm 1962 (ND) 230 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG Hỡnh 8.1 Th trng: ni gp g Cnh tranh s thay th to th hin qua vic ngi mua chu CPGD Ngi mua Th trng: ni gp g Cỏc nh trung gian giỳp gim CPGD Khung kh th ch Cỏc quỏ trỡnh trao i: to ra, th nghim v ỏnh giỏ tri thc cựng cỏc quyn ti sn (quỏ trỡnh hỡnh thnh giỏ) Nh cung cp Cnh tranh s thay th to th hin qua vic ngi bỏn chu chi phớ giao dch Nhng quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh c hai phớa ca th trng nh th liờn quan mt thit n hot ng trao i gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn trờn th trng H hon tt cỏc iu kin hp ng v ký kt tho thun mt quỏ trỡnh liờn tc m ú ngi ta by t thỏi bng ng tin ca mỡnh trờn c s tri thc ch quan a dng v hay thay i ca h, th hin nhng s thớch v ỏnh giỏ riờng ca h (Hỡnh 8.1) Mt ngi mua hoc ngi bỏn ó cú thụng tin y v 231 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG sn phm, i tỏc trao i, cht lng v cỏc iu kin trao i khỏc, ng thi ó ỏp nhng giỏ tr cỏ nhõn vo nhng gỡ m mỡnh bit, h s la chn i tỏc hp ng v tỡm cỏch t c tho thun Trong quỏ trỡnh ú, tri thc cỏ nhõn v cỏc phng ỏn la chn khỏc (cỏc phng ỏn thay th) s úng vai trũ quan trng quỏ trỡnh thng lng, c bit l v giỏ c Giỏ c truyn t tri thc mi, du di hỡnh thc mó hoỏ, ti ngi khỏc, ng thi th hin s ỏnh giỏ ca cỏc thnh viờn khỏc cuc chi kinh t i vi nhiu quyt nh, tớn hiu giỏ c mó hoỏ s sc chuyn ti thụng tin cn thit; qu thc, nhiu tri thc chi tit hn v nhng gỡ ng sau hin tng bin ng giỏ c cú th ch khin cho nng lc nhn thc ca ngi b quỏ ti m thụi Nh cung cp s bng lũng bit mc giỏ cao thỡ tt hn, cũn ngi mua s la chn mt mc giỏ thp v hnh x tng ng S cnh tranh c hai phớa ca th trng v quỏ trỡnh trao i c bn gia hai phớa din liờn tc v ng thi, mt mng li tin hoỏ ca vụ s hnh vi v phn ng din cựng lỳc Cnh tranh, vỡ th, phi c hiu nh mt quỏ trỡnh m qua ú tri thc hu ớch c tỡm kim, th nghim v khng nh; quỏ trỡnh y, cú th núi, cỏ nhõn dnh cỏc ngun lc ca mỡnh nhỡn thu ỏm sng mự ca s vụ minh (ignorance) iu ny khụng din m khụng cú sai sút, song, nh mi quỏ trỡnh tin hoỏ, sai sút cú th sa cha nu cn thit Nh vy, quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh l mt phng thc khỏm phỏ (discovery procedure) khụng phi l quỏ trỡnh luụn to tri thc hon ho, nu xột ti s bt trc xung quanh v phớa trc mang tớnh th cht, m l quỏ trỡnh giỳp gim bt s vụ minh ti mc kh d xoay x cho cỏc i tng tham gia th trng õy, chỳng ta cn t nhc nh mỡnh v nhng gỡ liờn quan n quỏ trỡnh tỡm kim thụng tin v quyt nh: iu nghch lý l chỳng ta khụng bao gi cú th ỏnh giỏ c mt cỏch lý l cn b bao nhiờu chi phớ thụng tin; chỳng ta ch cú th b chi phớ thụng tin n mt mc nht nh v dng li kinh nghim mỏch bo rng cú l mỡnh ó bit a quyt nh Chỳng ta cú th tỡm cỏch i n quyt nh s vụ minh gim xung ti mc cú th xoay x (tớnh lý bú buc bounded rationality) Rừ rng, ngi ta ch b chi phớ giao dch cho vic tỡm kim tri thc nhm i trc nh cung cp (hay ngi mua) i th ca mỡnh Mc khỏc, nhng ngi phớa bờn ny th trng s luụn hoan nghờnh hot ng cnh tranh phớa bờn vỡ iu ú em li cho h nhiu la chn tt hn Xin bin i mt cõu ngn ng c, iu gỡ tt cho General Motorsi tit kim c chi phớ giao dch mc cnh tranh gia cỏc nh sn xut l thp thỡ vỡ vy s xu cho cng ng ngi mua ụ tụ ca th gii Ngi mua v ngi bỏn luụn cú li ớch i nghch cuc chi kinh t Cỏc chc nng ca cnh tranh Bõy gi chỳng ta cú th quay tr li vi ba cõu hi t u phn ny i Tp on sn xut ụ tụ s th gii ca M (ND) 232 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG Gim bt s vụ minh: H thng quyn t hu thỳc y mi ngi tỡm kim nhng hỡnh thc s dng ti sn cho cú li Nú cho phộp h gi li lc, qua ú to cnh tranh gia cỏc nh cung cp (hay ngi mua), nhng ngi ganh ua tỡm kim tri thc mi cú th s dng nhm nõng cao v th ca mỡnh Nh vy, cnh tranh l mt quỏ trỡnh m ú nhiu ngi tham gia liờn tc vo vic tỡm kim thụng tin tn kộm v ri ro õy khụng phi l trng thỏi d chu cho nhng liờn quan m l trng thỏi tt cho s t la chn ca phớa bờn th trng v cho s thnh vng ca t nc a im v cỏch thc tỡm kim thụng tin khỏc t ngi ny sang ngi khỏc, kinh nghim v thiờn hng ch quan chi phi Mt lot phng phỏp tỡm kim khỏc s c dng Nn tng rng ln ca n lc tỡm kim cng vi s a dng ca cỏc phng phỏp tỡm kim hn nhiu tin b v tri thc hu ớch hn so vi nhng phng ỏn thay th khỏc, chng hn nh vic ch nh mt ớt chuyờn gia tỡm kim thụng tin mi Phõn tỏn tri thc: Cõu hi th hai liờn quan n cỏch thc ngi khỏc tip cn tri thc hu ớch ó qua th nghim Trong mt nn kinh t cnh tranh, thnh cụng trờn th trng c mi ngi bit ti Nh cung cp no cú lói s thu hỳt nhng k bt chc, cũn ngi mua no thnh t li thng c lỏng ging mụ phng Hn th, tớn hiu giỏ c truyn i thụng tin mó hoỏ v nhng gỡ m phớa bờn th trng mong mun v nhng gỡ m cỏc i th cú th cho bỏn S bin ng giỏ c cú th nhanh chúng c nhn v s mo hnh ng thớch ng nhm nõng cao giỏ tr ti sn iu ny khin cho thụng tin nhanh chúng lan to n nhng th trng cú mi quan h qua li Do vy, rt ớt ngi cn phi hiu lý y ca tỡnh trng thiu ht du m giai on 1974-1975 v u nhng nm 1980, dự ú l cuc chin tranh Trung ụng, nhu cu ti tng nhanh, s cn kit ca cỏc ging du hay hnh ng ca OPECi Giỏ du tng chúng mt bt k vỡ mt lý phc v khú gii mó no Gii lỏi xe New York v London lp tc gim nhu cu v bt u ngh ti chuyn chuyn t li tiờu th theo kiu ngn nhiờn liu sang cỏch s dng xng du tit kim Cỏc ngnh ngh trờn khp th gii iu chnh thúi quen s dng nng lng Song dõy chuyn thụng tin giỏ c li cũn i xa hn th: ti hng ngn phũng thớ nghim, ngi ta bt u b chi phớ tỡm kim hũng tỡm nhng cụng ngh tit kim du, chng hn ng c tit kim nhiờn liu, thit b iu khin in t, bin phỏp tit kim trng lng, phng ỏn thay th du bng cỏc ngun nng lng khỏc, v.v Xung lc giỏ c cng lan sang cỏc nh cung cp nng lng, nh nhng ln súng to t viờn ỏ nộm trờn mt h: hot ng khoan cỏc ging du v khớ mi c y mnh; cụng ngh mi c a vo th nghim hỳt du lờn t cỏc thm lc a v nhng a im khú khn khỏc; nhng khai trng than mi m ra, v vic nghiờn cu cụng ngh hoỏ lng than c ng Cỏc phng phỏp chit xut v tinh ch c ci tin hng trm a im khỏc Nhng phn ng ny cựng vi nhiu phn ng khỏc cui cựng ó giỳp vt qua cn khng hong du m, nh vụ s n lc nghiờn cu tn kộm t c hai phớa i Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries: T chc cỏc nc xut khu du m; gm cỏc nc Algeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, v Venezuela (ND) 233 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG cung v cu H thng cnh tranh phỏt i nhng tớn hiu cn thit bng tớn hiu giỏ c n gin, d nhn bit v nhanh chúng phỏt tỏn thụng tin l cung du ang thiu ht Tớn hiu ny thỳc gic cỏc ch ti sn, nhng k mu cu t li, gp rỳt tay, vi hy vng ỏnh bi i th Khụng mt h thng no khỏc li cú th lan truyn thụng tin nhanh chúng v hiu qu nh c ch giỏ c trờn th trng cnh tranh, v cng khụng mt h thng no khỏc li cú th huy ng c nhiu hot ng tỡm kim tri thc din sau ú n th Kim soỏt sai sút: Khi mi ngi phm sai lm mt h thng cnh tranh, h nhanh chúng rỳt bi hc t phn ng ca phớa bờn th trng cng nh t cỏch thc b i th ỏnh bi H nhn l mỡnh ó khụng s dng cỏc quyn ti sn mt cỏch cú li nht cho ngi khỏc v qua ú cho chớnh bn thõn: h phi chu s khin trỏch bng mc thua l Trong mt h thng th ch giỳp m bo cỏc quyn t hu, h chu trỏch nhim v tỡnh trng thua l v vỡ th nhiu kh nng s sa cha sai lm ca mỡnh Nu ti sn th nm gi, nhng ngi i din (agent) cú th tip tc nộm thờm nhiu tin vo ú, kốm theo lý l l ti h li c phi tip tc (voice) Khi b cỏc i tỏc trao i trờn th trng ri b (exit), h phi nhanh chúng sa cha v tỡm kim gii phỏp mt cỏch thc dng H qu l h thng cnh tranh cú nhng c ch t kim soỏt t phỏt bờn Sai sút thng c hn ch bi chỳng cú th b cỏc nh cnh tranh cú nhiu tri thc hn khai thỏc H thng tỡm kim tri thc thụng qua quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh th trng ny c t tờn l catallaxy, nh chỳng ta ó bit mc 8.1: quỏ trỡnh tng tỏc gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn nhm tỡm ý tng no l hu ớch Bn thõn h thng, cựng kh nng to tri thc v thnh vng ca nú, tng c cỏc nh trit hc kiờm kinh t hc th k 18, nh Adam Ferguson v Adam Smith, nhn thc sõu sc H cng nhn mnh s cn thit phi cú cỏc quy tc cnh tranh nhm m bo cho hot ng cnh tranh tip din gay gt v cỏc ch ti sn thng xuyờn b thỏch thc a ti sn ca mỡnh i mt vi th thỏch cnh tranh S m bo b cnh tranh - chng hn, cỏc cụng ty c quyn, nhng c quyn c li chớnh tr, hng ro thu quan - c nhng ngi sỏng lp kinh t hc coi l nhng tr ngi to ln i vi quỏ trỡnh tỡm kim v phõn tỏn tri thc, v qua ú i vi tin b Bn cht ca quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh, nh trỡnh by õy, b ỏnh mt cỏc nh kinh t hc a cỏi gi thuyt tri thc hon ho mt trm nm sau (Mahovec, 1998) Gi thuyt ú cho phộp h xõy dng cỏc mụ hỡnh so sỏnh tnh (comparative-static) trang nhó v n gin ca kinh t hc tõn c in.2 Khụng th no nm bt hin tng cnh tranh, liờn quan n quỏ trỡnh mang tớnh tin hoỏ ca hot ng tỡm kim tri thc phõn tỏn, thụng qua phõn tớch tnh tõn c in v cung cu da trờn cỏi gi thuyt l tri thc ó c bit Khụng th no phõn tớch ý ngha ca nhng khỏi nim v chi phớ giao dch, l h qu ca s vụ minh, v v cỏc th ch giỳp tit kim chi phớ giao dch tr phi chỳng ta coi cnh tranh nh mt phng thc khỏm phỏ tri thc m khụng cú Ch chỳng ta xem xột cnh tranh bi cnh s vụ minh ca ngi v nh mt phn ca mt h thng phc hp khụng ngng tin hoỏ, chỳng ta mi cú th hiu nhng chc nng quan trng no m nú thc hin: xin dn li Hayek, cnh tranh l mt 234 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG phng thc khỏm phỏ nhng d kin m khụng nh n nú, chỳng s khụng c bt c bit ti, ớt l s khụng c s dng (Hayek, 1978, trang 179) Nh vy, ngi ta khụng th mụ t cnh tranh ch bng nhng hỡnh nh n gin; chng hn, bng cỏch ngi m s lng cỏc nh cnh tranh ri núi rng c quyn mt ngi bỏn (monopoly) hay c quyn nhúm (oligopolyi mt ớt ngi bỏn) thỡ thua kộm cnh tranh c lp (atomistic vụ s ngi bỏn) nh cỏc cun sỏch giỏo khoa tõn c in Cỏc mụ hỡnh kinh t so sỏnh tnh khụng phự hp cho vic nm bt bn cht ca cnh tranh tng t nh s so sỏnh gia hai bc nh tnh: cỏc ng viờn chy ua trờn vch xut phỏt v trờn vch kt thỳc Phi l mt on phim thỡ mi mụ t c y kch tớnh ca cuc chy ua hay bt k mt kiu cnh tranh no khỏc Khỏi nim then cht Th trng l ni gp g gia ngi mun bỏn v ngi mun mua, nhng ngi cho bỏn hoc dm mua cỏc quyn ti sn i ly cỏc quyn ti sn khỏc Thụng thng, nh cung cp cho bỏn hng hoỏ v dch v thu tin, v mi ngi giỏn tip trao i hng hoỏ v dch v thụng qua tin, trỏi vi hỡnh thc trao i trc tip din mi ngi trao i hng ly hng (barter) Cnh tranh (competition) l quỏ trỡnh tng tỏc mang tớnh tin hoỏ gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn trờn th trng: ngi mua cnh tranh vi thu thp tri thc liờn quan n chuyn mua gỡ õu, cn th nghim nhng sn phm mi no v lm th no t c nhng tho thun cú li; ngi bỏn cnh tranh vi cỏc nh cung cp nhng sn phm thay th gn gi khỏc nhm t mỡnh vo v th mt i mt cú li vi ngi mua tim nng bng cỏch nghiờn cu tri thc mi v nhng bin thỏi ca sn phm, v cỏc quy trỡnh sn xut, cỏc phng thc t chc, thụng tin liờn lc v bỏn hng, v v nhng i tỏc trao i kh thi Cựng lỳc ú, quỏ trỡnh trao i gia ngi mua v ngi bỏn din trờn th trng Nhng hot ng ny chuyn ti thụng tin: cỏc tho thun thỡ sinh li (v cú th b bt chc) hay hin tng thua l li xy ra, vỡ th sai sút cú th sa cha bng cỏch tỡm kim nhng phng ỏn la chn khỏc Hot ng trao i thc t v tim tng mo cho cnh tranh c hai phớa ca th trng Ton b quỏ trỡnh cnh tranh to ng c mnh m thỳc y hot ng tỡm kim v th nghim tri thc hu ớch, vỡ cỏc nh cnh tranh ng trc ri ro ti sn v phi chu trỏch nhim v hnh ng v sai sút ca mỡnh Cng cnh tranh ph thuc vo thiờn hng chu b chi phớ giao dch ca c hai phớa th trng cng nh vo cỏc th ch bo v cnh tranh Khỏi nim catallaxy bt ngun t ting Hy Lp katallatein, cú ngha l trao i v qua ú bin k thự thnh bn Nú liờn quan n s tng tỏc v thớch ng vi nhau, khỏc vi ỏp t Catallaxy gi lờn hỡnh nh v cỏc quỏ trỡnh m qua ú nhng nhu cu mi, phng thc sn xut mi v sn phm mi c khỏm phỏ iu ny tng phn vi s thc hnh kinh t (economising), liờn quan i Tỡnh th kinh t m ú s lng nh cung cp mt loi sn phm ớt n mc hnh vi ca mt nh cung cp cú th gõy tỏc ng ỏng k ti giỏ c cựng nhng i tng cnh tranh vi mỡnh (ND) 235 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG n vic ti a hoỏ tho dng (utility) hay li nhun vi nhng nhu cu, cụng ngh sn xut v loi sn phm c nh Vn i vi tng trng kinh t chớnh l kh nng catallaxy ca xó hi Khỏi nim ny c Ludwig von Mises (1949, chng 15) hi sinh kinh t hc hin i v ngy cng ginh c s tha nhn cựng vi s phỏt trin ca kinh t hc tin hoỏ (evolutionary economics) c quyn (monopoly) l mt tỡnh trờn th trng m ú ch cú mt nh cung cp Do nh cung cp nht khụng phi i mt vi cnh tranh t ngi khỏc, nhng ngi cú th mi cho ngi mua nhng hng hoỏ thay th cú li hn, nờn nh c quyn khụng phi b chi phớ giao dch nhm tỡm kim tri thc mi v a nhng hng hoỏ tt hn v r hn Tuy nhiờn trờn thc t, nh cung cp nht li lo s thỏch thc cnh tranh t nhng hng hoỏ thay th tim tng tr phi th trng b úng ca bi hnh vi can thip ca chớnh ph Do ú, h s hnh x theo hng cnh tranh, tc l, tham gia vo hot ng tỡm kim thụng tin chng li cnh tranh tim tng t bờn ngoi Dharma: Nguyờn tc phi cnh tranh Chỳng ta cú th tỡm hiu khỏi nim cnh tranh xa hn mt chỳt õy bng cỏch cp n khỏi nim i lp ca nú, phi cnh tranh (non-competition): khụng nhy bộn, khụng n lc ginh ly u th v tri thc Trong trit lý Hindu truyn thng, phi cnh tranh bin thnh mt lý tng, dharma T ny bt ngun t t dhar ngụn ng Sanskrit: mang vỏc (carry), chng (bear), v thng dch l quỏn, ngha v c tuõn th vụ iu kin, tn dng s chp nhn theo thuyt nh mnh i vi hin trng s vti Khỏi nim ny thng dựng mụ t thỏi ngoan ngoón chp nhn s phn ca cỏc thnh viờn mt ng cp (caste) v s tha nhn vụ thc mc i vi kho tng tri thc ca t tiờn Cn nờu bt s tng phn ca dharma vi quan im Tụi cú th to nờn s khỏc bit, quan im in hỡnh ca ch ngha cỏ nhõn (individualism) Phng Tõy v Vin ụng, cng nh vi thỏi ham hiu bit theo li hoi nghi D nhiờn, nhng ngi ng x di s chi phi ca nguyờn tc dharma cú th b iu khin d dng hn, song õy cng tht ớt kh nng l h s khỏm phỏ nhng cỏch thc mi hay nhng bin phỏp ỳng n giỳp ci thin hon cnh ca mỡnh v, qua ú, hon cnh ca ngi khỏc Thỏi cnh tranh i sng kinh t cn thit cho hiu sut catallaxyii (catallactic efficiency) hay hiu sut ng (dynamic efficiency), kh nng ca ngi khỏm phỏ v th nghim ý tng, nhm to tin b kinh t (Chng 2; 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Mt tỏc phm vng vng v rt cn thit, vi ni dung bao hm, li trỡnh by d hiu, v nhng ng dng phự hp Kinh t hc th ch hin i ó thc s ln mnh m cỏc thnh t then cht ca nú c hp li mt cỏch c kt n vy Gi õy, ngi ta cú th khuyn ngh cun sỏch ny cho nhng c gi tim nng ham hiu bit thay vỡ phi ch cho h c mt m sỏch tm thng khỏc. James M Buchanan, C Giỏm c Trung tõm Nghiờn cu La Chn Cụng [Center for Study of Public Choice], Giỏo s Danh d Kh kớnh ca i hc George Mason v i hc Cụng ngh Virginia, ngi ot gii Nobel Kinh t nm 1986 a path-breaking, systematic text that develops institutional theory from fundamental tenets about human nature and then applies it to contemporary economic analysis This book will therefore allow teachers to introduce evolutionary and institutional economics without having to rely on dispersed and sometimes hard-to-access literature Institutional Economics presents an accessible introduction to one of the hottest areas of contemporary economic policy analysis and social philosophy One does not have to be an economist to enjoy this important book I recommend it most warmly to economists and noneconomists, to students and experienced old-timers alike mt tỏc phm khai m v bi bn, phỏt trin lý thuyt th ch t nhng tiờn c bn v bn cht ngi ri dng vo phõn tớch kinh t hc ng i Cun sỏch vỡ th s cho phộp cỏc giỏo viờn gii thiu v kinh t hc tin hoỏ v kinh t hc th ch m khụng cn phi da vo cỏc trc tỏc tn mỏt v ụi cũn khú tip cn õy l mt tỏc phm nhp mụn d hiu v mt nhng lnh vc núng bng nht ca phõn tớch chớnh sỏch kinh t v trit hc xó hi ng i Khụng c phi l mt nh kinh t hc thỡ mi thy hng thỳ vi cun sỏch quan trng ny Tụi xin chõn thnh khuyn ngh tỏc phm ny cho cỏc nh chuyờn mụn cng nh nhng k ngoi o, cho cỏc sinh viờn cng nh nhng ngi ln tui tng tri khỏc Gerard Radnitzky, Cato Journal 517 KINH T HC TH CH: TRT T X HI V CHNH SCH CễNG an authoritative survey of the present status of the field, and there are few students today who would not profit from a careful study of this text mt tỏc phm kho lun y uy tớn v v th hin hnh ca chuyờn ngnh kinh t hc th ch, v ch ớt sinh viờn ngy mi khụng thu c li ớch gỡ t vic nghiờn cu k cun sỏch ny E.G Furubotn, Journal of Economics VI NẫT V CC TC GI Wolfgang Kasper Giỏo s Kinh t, i hc New South Wales (University of New South Wales) Canberra, Australia Manfred E Streit Giỏm c, Vin Nghiờn cu cỏc H thng Kinh t Max-Plank (Max-Planck Institute for Research into Economic Systems) Jena, c 518 [...].. .KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG tin sẽ thấp Các hệ thống thứ bậc quyền lực (power hierarchies) vẫn giữ nguyên Các môn đồ của chủ thuyết dharma chấp nhận các thể chế hiện hành, bất chấp hậu quả của chúng Đấy là dấu hiệu nổi bật của một xã hội bảo thủ, phi tự do và một nền kinh tế trì trệ Tăng trưởng kinh tế và xã hội tự do, mà ở đó mâu thuẫn được... ước 23 9 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG Tuy nhiên, khi chất lượng của các thể chế bên ngoài và việc các cơ quan chính phủ với vai trò bên thứ ba đứng ra chế tài hợp đồng được cải thiện thì hoạt động cạnh tranh và trao đổi không hạn chế giữa những người xa lạ lại trở nên khả thi Thực tế này hiện vẫn đang diễn ra ở nhiều nước thuộc thế giới thứ ba khi chúng cải thiện các thể chế kinh. .. Tổ hợp công ty được hình thành nhằm kiểm soát hoạt động sản xuất, cạnh tranh và giá cả (ND) 25 2 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG bị khống chế bởi các doanh nghiệp chịu giám sát và do những người phụ trách chúng lại chịu ảnh hưởng của bài toán tri thức hóc búa cũng như của những trở ngại chính sách cố hữu khi áp đặt những kết quả cụ thể (Để có đánh giá thấu đáo về chính sách cạnh... vi can thiệp chính trị? 26 1 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG  Hãy liên tưởng tiến bộ kỹ thuật của xe hơi kể từ khi những chiếc xe lạch bạch đầu tiên xuất hiện trên các con đường ở Châu Âu và Mỹ một trăm năm trước đây, và chỉ ra những thể chế nào đã thúc đẩy quá trình cạnh tranh và đổi mới qua thời gian  Bạn có thể đoán vì sao ngành công nghiệp xe hơi ở các nền kinh tế kế hoạch... đấu trường ưa thích để trốn tránh cạnh tranh kinh tế và gặt hái lợi ích từ cạnh tranh chính trị Trong 25 5 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG những tình huống như thế, điều đặc biệt quan trọng là tạo lập địa vị pháp lý cao và bảo đảm cho các nguyên lý về cạnh tranh và cho các quyền tư hữu Khi những người nắm quyền kiểm soát khuôn khổ thể chế bên ngoài bênh vực lợi ích của số ít nhà... có thể bộc lộ qua thói quen mua sắm của họ (ND) ii Thuật ngữ do Joseph Schumpeter sáng tạo trong tác phẩm ‘Chủ nghĩa tư bản, chủ nghĩa xã hội và dân chủ’ (Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy - 19 42) nhằm chỉ ‘một quá trình chuyển hoá công nghiệp, không ngừng cách mạng hoá cấu trúc kinh tế từ bên trong, liên tục đào thải cái cũ và tạo ra cái mới’ (ND) 25 9 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH... trường hiện đại về hàng hoá và dịch vụ công nghiệp là hàng hoá trải nghiệm (experience good), hợp đồng quan hệ mở (open-ended relational contract) và các mối quan hệ cung - cầu dài hạn giữa những đối tác kinh doanh quen biết nhau, thay vì chỉ là những vụ mua bán một lần (once-off) giữa những chủ thể vô danh 24 2 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG Hình 8 .2 Các công cụ cạnh tranh nhìn... v.v (ND) 25 1 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG người khác khi họ tìm cách tránh hoặc giảm bớt áp lực cạnh tranh Trong trường hợp các chủ thể kinh tế khả dĩ áp đặt quyền lực kinh tế hay chính trị, họ có thể sử dụng quyền lực đó để bảo vệ ngách thị trường của mình bằng những trở ngại nhân tạo Điều này tăng thêm sức mạnh cho họ trong các cuộc thương lượng hợp đồng và giảm bớt nỗi lo... sai vốn mất nhiều thời gian và nguồn lực (Hayek, 1945; Rosenberg, 1988) Quá trình tìm kiếm tri thức của các nhà cung cấp hay đổi mới sẽ chịu ảnh hưởng của: (a) mức độ hiệu quả mà các thể chế hiện hành hỗ trợ họ trong công việc tìm kiếm và thử nghiệm tri thức mới; (b) cường độ cạnh tranh với các nhà cung cấp 24 8 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG khác; và (c) phản ứng dự kiến từ người... người ta có thể gọi là ‘hiến pháp của chủ nghĩa tư bản’ (constitution of capitalism) – dễ dàng bị suy yếu 26 0 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG bởi hành động chính trị xuất phát từ sự thúc đẩy của cạnh tranh chính trị Vì thế, điều đáng làm ở đây là gắn giá trị đạo đức cao cho nhiệm vụ bảo vệ quyền sử dụng tư hữu tự do trong hoạt động cạnh tranh Quyền tự do hợp đồng và sự bảo đảm ... tăng trưởng kinh tế bất cập thể chế bản, tổ chức kinh tế có xu hướng chịu lãnh i Tổ chức hay hệ thống mà cấp cao người (ND) 27 1 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG đạo người... hữu hạn (ND) 27 5 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG kinh tế mà môi trường thể chế thiếu rõ ràng tốn Cũng giống cần thiết phải tiết giảm chi phí giao dịch sách công thích hợp... C++, v.v (ND) 25 1 KINH TẾ HỌC THỂ CHẾ: TRẬT TỰ XÃ HỘI VÀ CHÍNH SÁCH CÔNG người khác họ tìm cách tránh giảm bớt áp lực cạnh tranh Trong trường hợp chủ thể kinh tế áp đặt quyền lực kinh tế hay trị,