Introduction to Electronics CHAPTER Section 1.1 Electronics Safety + + + + 1-1 Electronics Safety Safety is everyone’s responsibility Everyone must cooperate to create the safest possible working conditions Where your personal life and good health are concerned, safety becomes your responsibility whether you step in front of a speeding truck, or expose yourself to a lethal shock, are matters over which you, as an individual have more control than anyone else 1-2 Applications of Electronics 1-3 Digital Number Systems 1-4 Representing Binary Quantities + Safety is simply a matter of applying common sense precautions The rules of safety are concerned with the prevention of accidental injuries sustained when an accident occurs The general rules for shop safety apply equally to the electricalelectronics laboratory The following important shop rules should be observed at all times + + + Chapter Introduction to Electronics 10 Don’t clown around or engage in horseplay Many painful injuries are caused by the carelessness and thoughtless antics of the clown Get your teacher’s approval before starting your work This will save your time and help prevent accidents Remember your teacher is there to help you Report all injuries at once, even the slightest A small cut can develop serious complications if not properly treated Wear safety glasses- when grinding or working in areas where sparks or chips of metals are flying Remember that your eyes is a priceless possession Keep the floors around your work area clean and free of litter which might cause someone to slip or stumble Use tools correctly and not use them if they are not in proper working condition Observe the proper methods of handling and lifting objects Get help to lift heavy objects Do not talk nor disturb a fellow student when he is operating a machine Never leave the machine while it is running down Stay with it until it stops completely Obtain permission before you use power tools Students and teachers who work with electricity face hazard of electrical shock and should make every effort to understand the danger Electricity can cause fatal burns or cause vital organs to malfunction In general, a current of mA or less will cause a sensation of shock, but rarely any damage Larger currents can cause hand muscles to contract Currents on the order of 100 mA are often fatal if they pass through the body for even a few seconds The Electronics Workshop is primarily concerned with low-voltage electronics The chance of injury due to electric shock is very, very, low Experiments for younger students have been designed to be easily completed without the use of soldering Nonetheless, as in all laboratory situations, there are safety rules that must be followed The two most important safety rules are: Always have a knowledgeable adult to supervise work Ask a teacher or parent to help you Always use common sense and pay attention to the job you are working on Doing so can prevent most laboratory accidents Electricity-electronics is a tremendous field and most of us well to understand small segments of it Ask questions when in doubt Be humble! Every possible precaution has been taken to ensure the safety of experiments and the correctness of information The study of electronics is interesting and exciting Enjoy yourself and be safe Building skills for success Chapter Introduction to Electronics Section 1.2 Applications of Electronics In addition to use in radio and television, Electronics is used to almost all industries for control functions, automation, and computing There are so many applications that the broad field of electronics must be considered in smaller areas Three logical groupings of electronics applications are defined here Also included is a brief description of some important divisions with some typical job titles for working in the electronic business Communications Electronics This field includes AM and FM radio with stereo, and television with color The equipment is divided between transmitters and receivers Also, transmitters can be divided between radio frequency equipment to produce the carrier wave radiated from the antenna and the audio and video equipment in the studio that supplies the modulating signal with the desired information High-fidelity audio equipment can be considered with radio receivers The receiver itself has audio amplifiers to drive the loudspeaker that reproduce the sound Satellite communications is also a transmit-receive system using electro-magnetic radio waves The satellite just happens to be orbiting around the earth at a height of about 22,300 miles order to maintain a stationary position relative to the earth Actually, the satellite is a relay station for transmitter and receiver earth stations Electric Power These applications are in the generation and distribution if 60-Hz AC power, as the source of energy for electrical equipment Included are lighting, heating, motors, and generators Electronics plays an important role in the control and monitoring of electrical equipments Digital Electronics We see the digits to on an electronic calculator or digital watch, but digital electronics has a much broader meaning The circuits for digital applications operate with pulses of voltage or current, as shown in the diagram below A pulse waveform is either completely ON or OFF because of the sudden changes in amplitude In-between values have no function Note that ON and OFF stage can also be labeled as HIGH and LOW, or and in binary notation Effectively the digital pulses correspond to the action of switching circuits that are either on or off Voltage or current variations with a continuous set of values form an analog waveform, as shown below The 60-Hz power line and audio and video signals are common examples Note that the values between and 10 V are marked to indicate that all the in-between values are an essential part of a waveform Actually, all the possible applications in the types of electronic circuits can be divided into two just two types- digital circuits that recognize pulses when they are HIGH or LOW, and analog circuits that use all values in the waveform The applications of digital electronics, including calculators, computers, data processing and data communications, possibly form the largest branch of electronics In addition many other applications, including radio and television, use both analog and digital circuits In addition to all the general applications in communications, digital equipment, and electric services, several fields that could be of specific interest include automotive electronics, industrial electronics, and medical electronics Both digital and analog techniques are used In automotive electronics, more and more electronic equipment is used in cars for charging the battery, power assist functions, measuring gages, and monitoring and control of engine performance Perhaps the most important application is the electronic ignition This method provides better timing Building skills for success Chapter Introduction to Electronics of the ignition spark, especially at high speeds On-board computer monitor and control a wide auto functions Industrial electronics includes control of welding and heating processes, the use of elevator control, operation of copying machines Metal detectors and smoke detectors, moisture control, and computer-controlled machinery In addition there are many types of remote control-functions, such as automatic garage door openers and burglar alarms Closed-circuit television is often used for surveillance Medical electronics combines electronics with biology Medical research diagnosis, and treatment all use electronic equipment Examples are the electron microscope and electrocardiograph machine In hospitals, oscilloscopes are commonly used as the display to monitor the heartbeat of patients in extensive care Job titles Different specialties in electronics are indicated by the following titles for engineers: antenna, audio, computer, digital, illumination, information theory, magnetic, microwave, motors and generators, packaging, power distribution, radio, semiconductor, television, and test equipment Many of these fields combine physics and chemistry, especially for semiconductors The types of jobs in these fields include engineer for research, development, production, sales, or management, teacher, technician, technical writer, computer programmer, drafter, service worker, tester and inspector Technicians and service workers are needed for testing, maintenance and repair of all the different types of electronic equipments Building skills for success Chapter Introduction to Electronics Score: Instructor’s signature: Date: Remarks: _ Exercise Electronics safety comprehension exam In your own words, enumerate five electronics safety tips that you understand in this lesson (2 points each) a b c d e What field of electronics interests you most? Why? (5 points) Building skills for success Resistors CHAPTER The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic + + + + 2-1 Types of Resistors Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 KOhms is written as 1M-Ohm ( mega ohm ) 2-2 Resistor Color Codes 2-3 The Ohmmeter There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors They are also classified according to the material from which they are made The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film There are other types as well, but these are the most common 2-4 The Ohmeter 2-5 The Multimeter 2-6 Variable Resistors -7 Rating of Resistors The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important 2-8 Resistor Troubles + The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated résistance value For example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified resistance value The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate Just like you wouldn't use a volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I2 ) x the resistance value ( R ) of the resistor If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot, and even burn Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W 1/8W is almost always used in signal circuit applications When powering a light emitting diode, comparatively large current flows through the resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the resistor you choose + + + Chapter Resistors Section 2.1 Types of Resistors A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change Carbon film resistors This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor Usually the tolerance of the resistance value is ±5% Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits However, I have never experienced any problems with this noise The physical size of the different resistors are as follows Rough size Rating power Thickness Length (W) (mm) (mm) From the top of the photograph 1/8W 1/4W 1/2W 1/8 1/4 1/2 This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network It is made with many resistors of the same value, all in one package One side of each resistor is connected with one side of all the other resistors inside One example of its use would be to control the current in a circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs) In the photograph on the left, resistors are housed in the package Each of the leads on the package is one resistor The ninth lead on the left side is the common lead The face value of the resistance is printed ( It depends on the supplier ) Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of the resistor network The 4S indicates that the package contains independent resistors that are not wired together inside The housing has eight leads instead of nine The internal wiring of these typical resistor networks has been illustrated below The size (black part) of the resistor network which I have is as follows: For the type with leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm For the types with component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height mm, and the width 20 mm Building skills for success Chapter Resistors Metal film resistors Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors They have about ±0.05% tolerance They have about ±0.05% tolerance I don't use any high tolerance resistors in my circuits Resistors that are about ±1% are more than sufficient Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits Rough size Rating power Thickness Length (W) (mm) (mm) From the top of the photograph 1/8W (tolerance ±1%) 1/4W (tolerance ±1%) 1W (tolerance ±5%) 2W (tolerance ±5%) 1/8 1/4 3.5 12 15 CDS Elements Some components can change resistance value by changes in the amount of light hitting them One type is the Cadmium Sulfide Photocell (Cd) The more light that hits it, the smaller its resistance value becomes There are many types of these devices They vary according to light sensitivity, size, resistance value etc Pictured at the left is a typical CDS photocell Its diameter is mm, mm high, with a cylinder form When bright light is hitting it, the value is about 200 ohms, and when in the dark, the resistance value is about 2M ohms This device is using for the head lamp illumination confirmation device of the car Building skills for success Chapter Resistors Other Resistors There is another type of resistor other than the carbon-film type and the metal film resistors It is the wirewound resistor A wirewound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values Also, high-wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material Wirewound resistors cannot be used for high-frequency circuits Coils are used in high frequency circuits Since a wirewound resistor is a wire wrapped around an insulator, it is also a coil, in a manner of speaking Using one could change the behavior of the circuit Still another type of resistor is the Ceramic resistor These are wirewound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with a special cement They have very high power ratings, from or watts to dozens of watts These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power applications, and this must be taken into account when designing the circuit These devices can easily get hot enough to burn you if you touch one The photograph on the left is of wirewound resistors The upper one is 10W and is the length of 45 mm, 13 mm thickness The lower one is 50W and is the length of 75 mm, 29 mm thickness The upper one is has metal fittings attached These devices are insulated with a ceramic coating The photograph on the left is a ceramic (or cement) resistor of 5W and is the height of mm, mm depth, 22 mm width Thermistor ( Thermally sensitive resistor ) The resistance value of the thermistor changes according to temperature This part is used as a temperature sensor.There are mainly three types of thermistor NTC(Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor) : With this type, the resistance value decreases continuously as the temperature rises PTC(Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor) : With this type, the resistance value increases suddenly when the temperature rises above a specific point CTR(Critical Temperature Resister Thermistor) : With this type, the resistance value decreases suddenly when the temperature rises above a specific point The NTC type is used for the temperature control Building skills for success Chapter 10 Resistors The relation between the temperature and the resistance value of the NTC type can be calculated using the following formula R T R0 T0 B : The resistance value at the temperature T : The temperature [K] : The resistance value at the reference temperature T0 : The reference temperature [K] : The coefficient As the reference temperature, typically, 25°C is used The unit with the temperature is the absolute temperature(Value of which was -273°C) in K(Kelvin) 25°C are the 298 Kelvins Section 2.2 Resistor color code Because carbon resistors are small physically, they are color-coded to mark their value in ohms The basis of this system is the use of colors for numerical values as listed in the table below In memorizing the colors note that the darkest colors, black and brown, are for the lowest numbers, zero and one, whereas white is for nine The color coding is standardized by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) These colors are also used for small capacitors Example (Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange=3) 10 x 10 = 10k ohm Tolerance(Gold) = ±5% Example (Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2) 470 x 10 = 47k ohm Tolerance(Brown) = ±1% Color Value Multiplier Tolerance (%) Black 0 - Brown 1 ±1 Red 2 ±2 Orange 3 ±0.05 Yellow 4 - Green 5 ±0.5 Blue 6 ±0.25 Violet 7 ±0.1 Gray 8 - White 9 - Gold - -1 ±5 Silver - -2 ±10 None - Building skills for success - ±20 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values When superimposing these values of voltage and current, we have to be very careful to consider polarity (voltage drop) and direction (electron flow), as the values have to be added algebraically Applying these superimposed voltage figures to the circuit, the end result looks something like this: Currents add up algebraically as well, and can either be superimposed as done with the resistor voltage drops, or simply calculated from the final voltage drops and respective resistances (I=E/R) Either way, the answers will be the same Here I will show the superposition method applied to current: Building skills for success 143 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values Once again applying these superimposed figures to our circuit: Quite simple and elegant, don't you think? It must be noted, though, that the Superposition Theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to series/parallel combinations for each of the power sources at a time (thus, this theorem is useless for analyzing an unbalanced bridge circuit), and it only works where the underlying equations are linear (no mathematical powers or roots) The requisite of linearity means that Superposition Theorem is only applicable for determining voltage and current, not power!!! Power dissipations, being nonlinear functions, not algebraically add to an accurate total when only one source is considered at a time The need for linearity also means this Theorem cannot be applied in circuits where the resistance of a component changes with voltage or current Hence, networks containing components like lamps (incandescent or gas-discharge) or varistors could not be analyzed Another prerequisite for Superposition Theorem is that all components must be "bilateral," meaning that they behave the same with electrons flowing either direction through them Resistors have no polarity-specific behavior, and so the circuits we've been studying so far all meet this criterion The Superposition Theorem finds use in the study of alternating current (AC) circuits, and semiconductor (amplifier) circuits, where sometimes AC is often mixed (superimposed) with DC Because AC voltage and current equations (Ohm's Law) are linear just like DC, we can use Superposition to analyze the circuit with just the DC power source, then just the AC power source, combining the results to tell what will happen with both AC and DC sources in effect For now, Building skills for success 144 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values though, Superposition will suffice as a break from having to simultaneous equations to analyze a circuit REVIEW: The Superposition Theorem states that a circuit can be analyzed with only one source of power at a time, the corresponding component voltages and currents algebraically added to find out what they'll with all power sources in effect To negate all but one power source for analysis, replace any source of voltage (batteries) with a wire; replace any current source with an open (break) Building skills for success 145 Appendix CHAPTER + + + + A-1 The Bread Board A-2 Soldering A-3 PCB Making A-3 Schematic Diagram of the DC Power Supply A-4 Block Diagram Of a Power Supply A-5 Block Diagram Of aTelevision Set A-6 Block Diagram of a cell phone model + + + + Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values The Breadboard In general the breadboard consists of two terminal strips and two bus strips (often broken in the centre) Each bus strip has two rows of contacts Each of the two rows of contacts are a node That is, each contact along a row on a bus strip is connected together (inside the breadboard) Bus strips are used primarily for power supply connections, but are also used for any node requiring a large number of connections Each terminal strip has 60 rows and columns of contacts on each side of the centre gap Each row of contacts is a node You will build your circuits on the terminal strips by inserting the leads of circuit components into the contact receptacles and making connections with 22-26 gauge wire There are wire cutter/strippers and a spool of wire in the lab It is a good practice to wire +5V and 0V power supply connections to separate bus strips Fig The breadboard The orange lines indicate connected holes Building skills for success 147 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values Using Using the Breadboard (Socket Board) The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board The metal strips are laid out as shown below These strips connect the holes on the top of the board This makes it easy to connect components together to build circuits To use the bread board, the legs of components are placed in the holes (the sockets) The holes are made so that they will hold the component in place Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the board Each wire forms a node A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common node On the bread board, a node is the row of holes that are connected by the strip of metal underneath The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections The rest of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper wires Then when a path is formed by wires and components from the positive supply node to the negative supply node, we can turn on the power and current flows through the path and the circuit comes alive For chips with many legs (ICs), place them in the middle of the board so that half of the legs are on one side of the middle line and half are on the other side Building skills for success 148 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values Soldering The soldering is the basic work for electronic circuit engineering I will introduce the tools for soldering below.The sufficient attention is necessary during work, because soldering handles a high temperature.Pay attention to the handling of the soldering iron sufficiently, because it becomes burn, fire more, carelessly Soldering iron Soldering iron is a necessary instrument when you solder Solder is hardening in a normal temperature, but solder can melt easily by using the soldering iron and the parts and wiring materials can be fixed to the printed wiring board(PWB) The important piont is temperature of the soldering iron For soldering, it needs to become the temperature of the object(PWB, parts, wire etc) to solder melting temperature However, the temperature of soldering iron must not be too high The electronic component gets damage with high temperature So, you need to solder in a short time Sometimes, the loose contact of soldering occurs It is difficult to confirm only by looking at When the temperature of the object is not enough, the loose contact will be occured At the end of assembling of the electronic circuit, you need to check the soldered contact with circuit tester etc Electric power (Calorific (Calorific value is decided with this) There are various kind of soldering irons I am using kinds of soldering irons 25W type I am usually using this type This type is convenient when solder the parts on PWB 80W type I use this type when I solder the parts to thick copper plate In case of thick copper plate, the heat is easy to escape and the temperature rise is difficult 15W type I use this type for the part which is easy to break by the heat Usually, 25W type is enough The tip of iron Building skills for success 149 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values The soldering is done at the tip of iron So, the tip of iron is very important There is the type that the tip of soldering iron is made of copper stick But I don't recommend that type Because, the copper stick rusts easily by heat and it becomes difficult to convey heat Also the tip of copper stick melts with solder It becomes difficult to sloder I recommend the one that is using a special metal for tip It is difficult to rust and melt The tip of iron must keep clean When it get dirty, it becomes difficult to convey heat There are many shape of tips The tip which fit to the DIP type IC is used to remove the ICs All of the solder on the pins can be melt at same time then it easy to remove the IC I not have such kind of soldering iron Usually the soldering iron is heated by electricity However, there is the soldering iron heated by gas It is convenient to carry Soldering iron stand The soldering iron becomes high temperature Therefore it can't be placed on the desk directly The stabilized soldering iron stand is necessary When making the electronic circuit, sometime I forgot the existence of soldering iron, because I have devoted to the parts, wiring etc It was serious when I noticed, desk was burning You need to choose the iron stand with appropriate weight which can hold iron stably.Also you need to choose the iron stand that fit the form of iron Usually I wipe the tip of iron with moistened sponge Therefore I use the iron stand with the place for sponge This is your taste Solder The solder is the alloy of lead and tin As for good solder, the containment rate of tin is high The finish of soldering is beautiful The price is a little bit high There are several kinds of solder, solder wire( thread form solder ) is convenient for electronic circuit making This solder wire is doing the structure of the pipe and flux is included inside Flux melts together with the solder and the solder becomes easy to attach to the component leads There are some thickness of solder wire I am usually Building skills for success 150 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values using the one that diameter is 0.5 mm The containment rate of the tin is 60% Solder sucker The failure of soldering occurs often In this case, the part or the wiring must be removed I will introduce the instruments that can be used for desoldering Solder pump This is the tool that can be absorbed the melted solder with the repulsion power of the spring that was built in with the principle of the piston The usage is shown below Pushe down the knob of the upper part of the pump against to spring until it is locked Melt the solder of the part that wants to absorb solder with iron Apply the nozzle of the pump to the melted solder part Push the release knob of pump Then the plunger of the pump is pushed up with the power of spring and solder is absorbed inside the pump You need to this operation quickly, otherwise the part gets damage by the heat A little practice is needed Desoldering wire This is made of thin copper net wire like a screen cable in a coaxial cable Like water inhales to cloth, the solder is absorbed to the net wire by a capillary tube phenomenon The usage is shown below Apply the desoldering wire to the part that wants to take solder Apply the soldering iron from the top and Melt the solder The melted solder is absorbed to desoldering wire with a capillary tube phenomenon At this time you absorb solder while shifting desoldering wire When the solder can not be removed in the once, remove repeatedly while shifting the desoldering wire There are several kinds of width of desoldering wire I am using the one with 2mm width Making PWB When assembling an electronic circuit, a board is needed on which the components can be mounted and wired together Mainly, I use the universal prined wiring board (PWB) for assembling the circuit But I will explain about instruments that makes the printed board Building skills for success 151 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values When you make the high frequency circuit, you need to consider the wiring length and the route of wiring etc Therefore when you make the high frequency circuit ( radio, high speed CPU etc ), you need to make the printed wiring board In other countries, they are refered to as "Printed Circuit Boards," or PCBs The printed board is doing the structure which stuck copper leaf on insulation board such as the epoxy material of glass or the epoxy material of paper or the material of bakelite The copper leaf becomes a wiring part There are kinds of types in the printed board They are single-sided printed board and double sided printed board To make the printed wiring board, leaving the necessary(wiring part) place of the copper leaf, the unnecessary(insulate part) place is lost This work is called Etching There are several method to make the printed board Fundamentally the copper leaf is melted with the solution of the Ferric Chloride The mask pattern is used to leave the wiring part You can write the mask pattern directly on negative printed board with oily ink Some ink is melted by solvent, then you had better to check beforehand Even this method is good in the case that you make only sheet This time, I will introduce the method using positive exposure printed board as negative printed board The sensitizer has been applied on negative printed board The nature of the sensitizer when hit the light changes Lighted part of sensitizer can melt to the developer and the part not lighted does not melt The mask is made with the black color ink where the part that you want to leave the copper leaf ( positive mask ) Dissolve the copper leaf is called Etching Etching liquid This is the solution of the Ferric Chloride(FeCl3·H2O).The Ferric Chloride is not the toxic substance, play thing, dangerous article that were regulated with the laws but the liquid that the copper of the printed board dissolved by the etching becomes a waste fluid regulation object.(in case of Japan) Even if it is a little it pours to sewerage and also not bury during the soil Processing medicine that is attached to etching liquid without fail is used or it must process it in the waste fluid processing place of the specialty When liquid is attached to the clothes it is never able to take it Do the attention to handling sufficiently, because the clothes have changed color ( My experiences ) Avoid contact with eyes If it enters to the eye it needs to wash away sufficiently with water right away Building skills for success 152 Chapter Other Methods of Solving Voltage and Current Values Battery driven mini drill This is a mini drill that makes holes for mounting the parts on the printed board For most of parts like resistor, cpacitor, the size of hole is about 0.6 mm Flux The copper foil after removing the sensitizer becomes clean, but sheet copper is becoming bare condition then oxidization begins right away Flux needs to be applied thinly to prevent oxidization When flux is applied, you can make the copper leaf in clean condition forever Also, you can carry out soldering easily Building skills for success 153 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS Section 1.1 Electronics Safety Section 1.2 Applications of Electronics Job titles Exercise Electronics safety comprehension exam RESISTORS Section 2.1 Types of Resistors Carbon film resistors Metal film resistors CDS Elements Other Resistors Thermistor ( Thermally sensitive resistor ) Section 2.2 Resistor color code 10 Exercise Resistor Color Codes 12 Section 2.3 The Ohmmeter 13 Zero Resistance 13 Using the Ohmmeter 14 Ohmmeter Ranges 14 Ohmmeter Safety Precautions 15 Section 2.4 The Multimeter 15 Multimeter Controls 16 Multimeter Scales 16 Parallax Error 17 Multimeter Safety Precautions 18 Laboratory Experiment Using the Ohmmeter 19 Variable Resistors 20 Rheostats and Potentiometers 20 Section 2.6 Rating of Resistors 22 Section 2.7 Resistor Troubles 22 Section 2.8 Resistor Connections 23 Series Combinations of Resistors 23 Exercise Resistors in Series 26 Parallel Resistors 27 Parallel Resistors - A Point to Remember 27 Exercise Resistors in Parallel 28 Combinations of Resistors - Series/Parallel Circuits 29 Exercise Resistors in Parallel 31 OHM'S LAW .36 What is Ohm’s Law? 36 Building skills for success Section 3.1 Ohm’s Law Formula 37 OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT 37 Section 3.2 Application of Ohm’s Law 38 TYPES OF CIRCUITS 39 Section 3.3 Series Circuits 40 SERIES CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS 40 VOLTAGE DROP 41 VOLTAGE DROP TOTAL 42 VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION 42 Section 3.4 PARALLEL CIRCUIT 43 Section 3.5 Series - Parallel Circuits 46 Section 3.6 Voltmeters 49 How to Use a Voltmeter 49 Section 3.7 Ammeters 53 Ammeter Connected in Series 53 Effect on the Circuit being Measured 54 Ammeter Sensitivity 55 Ammeter Ranges 55 Range Selection 57 Ammeter Safety Precautions 58 Exercise Problem Sets on Ohm’s Law 59 Solutions to Exercise Number 65 COMMON ELECTRONIC DEVICES 73 Section 4.1 Transformer 73 Construction 73 Transformer Core 74 Section 4.2 Switch and Fuse 75 Fuse 75 How to select a fuse in a circuit 76 Laboratory Experiment Transformer Switch and Fuse Testing 79 Section 4.3 Semiconductor Diodes 80 Introduction 80 REVIEW: 83 Section 4.4 Meter check of a diode 83 REVIEW: 86 Section 4.5 Rectifier circuits 87 Laboratory Experiment Diode Biasing 90 Section 4.6 Capacitors 91 The unit of measurements of capacitance 91 Schematic symbols of a capacitor 92 Laboratory Experiment Capacitor Action 93 Breakdown voltage 94 Building skills for success Section 4.7 Different types of capacitors 94 Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors) 94 Tantalum Capacitors 95 Ceramic Capacitors 95 Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors 96 Polystyrene Film Capacitors 96 Electric Double Layer Capacitors (Super Capacitors) 96 Polyester Film Capacitors 97 Mica Capacitors 98 Metallized Polyester Film Capacitors 98 Variable Capacitors 98 Characteristics of Capacitors 99 Capacitor Connections 100 Laboratory Experiment Filtered Rectifier Circuits 101 Section 4.8 Transistors 102 Introduction 102 REVIEW: 103 Section 4.9 Meter check of a transistor 104 REVIEW: 108 OTHER TECHNIQUES OF SOLVING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES 109 Section 5.1 Voltage divider circuits 109 Linear Potentiometer Construction 113 REVIEW: 116 Section 5.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) 116 REVIEW: 125 Section 5.3 Current divider circuits 126 REVIEW: 129 Section 5.4 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) 129 REVIEW: 131 Section 5.5 Thevenin's Theorem 131 REVIEW: 135 Section 5.6 Norton's Theorem 136 REVIEW: 139 Section 5.7 Thevenin-Norton Equivalencies 139 REVIEW: 141 Section 5.8 Superposition Theorem 141 REVIEW: 145 APPENDIX .146 The Breadboard 147 Using the Breadboard (Socket Board) 148 Building skills for success Soldering 149 Soldering iron 149 Electric power (Calorific value is decided with this) 149 The tip of iron 149 Soldering iron stand 150 Solder 150 Solder sucker 151 Solder pump 151 Desoldering wire 151 Making PWB 151 Etching liquid 152 Battery driven mini drill 153 Flux 153 Building skills for success ... specific interest include automotive electronics, industrial electronics, and medical electronics Both digital and analog techniques are used In automotive electronics, more and more electronic... Electronics plays an important role in the control and monitoring of electrical equipments Digital Electronics We see the digits to on an electronic calculator or digital watch, but digital electronics. .. information The study of electronics is interesting and exciting Enjoy yourself and be safe Building skills for success Chapter Introduction to Electronics Section 1.2 Applications of Electronics In addition