Reinventing the Automobile Reinventing the Automobile Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century William J Mitchell, Christopher E Borroni-Bird, and Lawrence D Burns The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England ©2010 MassachusettsI nstituteof Technology All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use For information, please email special_sales@mitpress.mit.edu or write to Special Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142 This book was set in Helvetica Neue LT Pro and Adobe Garamond Pro by the MIT Press Printed and bound in the United States of America The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, and are not necessarily those of General Motors or the MIT Media Laboratory Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mitchell, William J (William John), 1944– Reinventing the automobile : personal urban mobility for the 21st century/William J Mitchell, Christopher E Borroni-Bird, and Lawrence D Burns p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6 (hardcover : alk paper) Electric automobiles—Technological innovations Intelligent transportation systems Transportation, Automotive Urban transportation I Borroni-Bird, Chris II Burns, Lawrence D III Title TL220.M58 2010 629.2—dc22 2009024970 10 Contents Preface ix Introduction The New DNA of the Automobile The Mobility Internet 36 Reinventing the Automobile for Urban Use 52 Clean, Smart Energy Supply 84 Charging Infrastructure 96 Integrating Vehicles and Smart Electric Grids 114 New Mobility Markets 130 Personal Mobility in an Urbanizing World 156 10 Realizing the Vision 188 Notes 200 Acknowledgments 204 Bibliography 208 Illustration Sources 214 Index 218 Preface Imagine driving around your city in one of the vehicles shown on the cover—while connecting to your social network and favorite news and entertainment sources, using your time efficiently, and expending only renewable energy This book presents four big ideas that will make this possible It weaves them together into a comprehensive vision for the future of automobiles, personal mobility systems, and the cities they serve The first idea is to transform the DNA—that is, the underlying design principles—of vehicles The DNA of today’s cars and trucks depends on petroleum for energy, on the internal combustion engine for power, and on manual control and independent, stand-alone operation The new automotive DNA is based on electric-drive and wireless communications It will allow future vehicles to be lighter and cleaner, drive themselves when necessary, avoid crashes, and be fun and fashionable The second idea is the Mobility Internet This is a logical development from its predecessors—the computer Internet, the cell-phone Internet, and the “Internet of things” enabled by electronic tags and sensors It will enable vehicles to collect, process, and share enormous amounts of data so that traffic can be managed and travel times can be reduced and made more predictable It will also permit drivers to remain seamlessly connected to their social networks The third idea is to integrate electric-drive vehicles with smart electric grids that use clean, renewable energy sources—particularly solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal—together with dynamic electricity pricing This not only provides clean energy to vehicles, but also enables grids to operate more efficiently and to make more effective use of renewables By taking advantage of the electricity storage capacity of electric-drive vehicles and employing price signals to regulate demand and mitigate the effects of the intermittent supply characteristic of many renewable sources, smart grids can keep electricity supply and demand in optimal balance The fourth idea is to provide real-time control capabilities for urban mobility and energy systems This is accomplished by establishing dynamically priced markets not only for electricity, but also for road space, parking space, and in some contexts shared-use vehicles The wireless connectivity and onboard intelligence of the automobiles that we propose enables them to respond appropriately to the price signals within these markets This provides an effective way to balance supply and demand, relieve road and parking space congestion, and increase the utilization rates of available vehicles Why haven’t these ideas been pursued in concert in cities before? Many of their elements, after all, aren’t new The answer is that the enabling technologies not only had to develop, but also had to converge before they could become effective They have now done so This creates an opportunity to reinvent automobiles and personal urban mobility systems fundamentally (not just improve them incrementally), which is what’s needed to meet the urgent sustainability challenges we face x Preface This fundamental reinvention will enable the creation of automobiles that weigh less than a thousand pounds, are less than a hundred inches long, and better than 200 miles per gallon of gasoline on an energy-equivalent basis They can provide safe, convenient personal urban mobility at about one-quarter the total cost per mile of today’s cars, take up approximately one-fifth of the space currently needed in cities for parking, significantly improve the throughputs of streets and roads, and eliminate carbon emissions Reinvented automobiles will have the most profound 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Jonathan, Chaktan Ma, and Christopher Cherry “The Transition to Electric Bikes in China and Key Reasons for Rapid Growth.” Transportation 34( 2007): 301–318 Weiss, Malcolm A., John B Heywood, Elisabeth M Drake, Andreas Schafer, and Felix F AuYeung On the Road in 2020: A Life-Cycle Analysis of New Automobile Technologies Energy Laboratory Report MIT EL 00-003 Energy Laboratory, MIT October 2000 World Bank Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban Transportation Strategy Review Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications, 2003 Zahavi, Yacov, and Antii Talvitie “Regularities in Travel Time and Money Expenditures.” Transportation Research Journal 750 (1980): 13–19 Illustration Sources 1.1, 1.2 General Motors 4.14–4.17 GeneralM otors 2.1 GeneralM otors 4.18–4.19 Franco Vairani 2.2 AAA: “Your Driving Costs,” 2008 4.20–4.22 GeneralM otors 2.3 Clockwise from top left, from published information— Honda FCX Clarity, Tesla roadster, FIAT Phylla, BYD F3DM, Chevrolet Volt, Great Wall Smart EV 5.1 GeneralM otors 2.7 Carnegie Mellon University, www.tartanracing.org 5.2 Argonne National Labs, “The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) Model v 1.8b,” http://www.transportation.anl.gov/modeling_simulation/GREET/ 2.8–2.11 GeneralM otors 5.3 Energy Information Administration 2.12 SmartC ities 5.4–5.6 GeneralM otors 2.13 GeneralM otors 6.1 SmartC ities 2.14 SmartC ities 6.2 McKinsey & Co 2.15 United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs 6.3 SmartC ities 3.1 Urban Congestion Report: National Executive Summary, Federal Highway Administration, April 2007 6.5, 6.6 Smart Cities 2.4–2.6 GeneralM otors 3.2 SmartC ities 3.3 GeneralM otors 3.4 World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Mobility 2030 3.5 Dinesh Mohan, Mythologies, Metros, and Future Urban Transport, Indian Institute of Technology, January 2008 3.6 GeneralM otors 4.1 GeneralM otors 4.2 Clockwise from top left, from published sources—Toyota i-REAL, Suzuki PIXY+SSC, Nissan PIVO-2, Honda PUYO 4.3–4.12 SmartCi ties 4.13 Segway 6.4 Smart Cities, from information published by Coulomb 6.7 Smart Cities, from information published by KAIST 6.8 Smart Cities Chapter (opening image) Franco Vairani 7.1 VENcorp 7.2–7.6 SmartC ities 7.7 John Williams and Smart Cities 8.1 M D Meyer, A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion and Enhancing Mobility, Institute of Transportation Engineers 8.2–8.9 SmartC ities 9.1 United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision 9.2 Federal Highway Administration 9.3 GeneralM otors 9.4 Renault 9.5 U.S data collected from various sources; UNECE 2001 (cars European Union and Accession Countries, population Accession Countries), Eurostat 2001 (population European Union) and WorldBank 2002 (GDP in US$ and 1995 prices Accession Countries and European Union) 9.6 Source data from R L Forstall, R P Greene, and J B Pick, “Which Are the Largest? Why Published Populations for Major World Urban Areas Vary so Greatly,” City Futures Conference, University of Illinois at Chicago, July 2004 9.7 Jesse H Ausubel, Cesare Marchetti and Perrin Meyer: “Toward Green Mobility: The Evolution of Transport,” European Review, vol 6, no (1998), 137–156 9.8 Federal Highway Administration 9.9 Data from Jeffrey R Newman, Felix B Laube (eds.), An International Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities: 1960–1990( 2002) 9.10 Federal Highway Administration 9.11 GeneralM otors 9.12 Smart Cities, after Don Shoup 9.13 Federal Highway Administration 9.14 “New York Household Travel Patterns: A Comparison Analysis,” based on 2001 National Houshold Travel Survey, by Pat S Hu and Tim R Reuscher, Report prepared for the Office of Transportation Policy and Strategy at New York State Department of Transportation, Albany, New York 12232 Prepared by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 378316285 Report ORNL-TM-2006/624 9.15, 9.16 General Motors 9.17 Smart Cities 9.18 General Motors 9.19, 9.20 Smart Cities 21 General Motors 9.22, 9.23 Smart Cities 10.1 General Motors and Smart Cities 216 Illustration Sources Index Ackoff, Russell, 194–195 Advertising,153–154 Affordability of urban vehicles, 80–82 Aging world population, 34–35 Air conditioning, 32 Air pollution, 86 Albuquerque,169 Alternative paths, 197 American Automobile Association, cost figures, 81–82 Anderson, Robert, 11 APS (Alimentation par Sol) electric tramway system, 110 Arrival times, predictability of, 137–138, 146, 152 Assembly processes, 59 ATSAC( Automated Traffic Surveillance and Control) system, 134 Automatic charging, 104–105 Automobile(s) architecture, traditional, 28 industry,12 mass-produced,2 numbers, 2–3, 53 occupancy rates, 56 ownership,12 sideeff ects of, 2–3 use, limits on, 171–172 Automotive DNA, ix, 3–4, 6, 9–35 evolution of, 9–12 Autonomous driving, 4, 20–23, 46, 49–50, 75, 142, 148, 152–153, 154–155 AUTOnomy,28– 29 Baggage compartment, CityCar, 68–69 Balancing mechanisms, 29–30 Bangkok,169 Battery(ies), 5, 11, 15, 17, 28 bulk of, 93 charging rates, 104 CityCar,68–69 lead-acid,93–95 life of, 98 lithium-ion, 14–15, 94–95, 101–102, 104 locations of, 28 mass,93 nickel-metal hydride, 94–95 pack,93 packaging, 57–58, 93 P.U.M.A.,72 recycling,122 swapping,102 technology, evolution of, 94–95 Battery-charging point, CityCar, 68 Battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), 4, 14–17, 56–57, 94 Becker, Christopher, 11 Benefits of reinventing the automobile, Benz, Karl, 4, 11 Bicycle(s),55–56 Bicycle sharing systems, 141 Billing, electronic, 141 Biomass,121 Bixi,141 Body design, 31–32 Bordeaux,110 Borroni-Bird, Christopher, 14 Boston,112 Boulder, Colorado, 127 Brake-by-wire systems, 18 Brake systems, 29 Braking, Segway, 72 Burns, Lawrence, 14 Business of design, 194 Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, 41, 46, 171, 176–178 By-wire systems, 18–19, 29, 31 Carbon dioxide emissions, 3, 86 Car2go,141 Cellular networks, 38 Central motors, 17 Charging equipment, cost of, 100 Charging infrastructure, 97–113 geography of, 111–113 incremental deployment of, 111–113 stakeholders in, 111–113 Chargingst ations locations of, 98–100, 111–112 pillar type, 107 spacing of, 98 Charging times, effects of, 100 Chassis-by-wire systems, 18 Chassis system functionality, 59 Chevrolet Sequel,18–19 Tahoe “Boss,” 21 Volt,93 China, 3, 159 Christenson, Clayton, 195 Cities, x, 1, 2–3, 5, personal mobility in, 157–186 CityCar, viii, 30, 56, 62–72 Climate control, 105–106 Codependencies, 53–54, 193–194, 196 Coevolution of cities and mobility systems, 1, 53, 185–186 Cogeneration,118–120 Collision(s), 3, 174 avoidance, 21–22, 26, 175 Combined heat and power (CHP) systems, 118–120 Combustion, immobilization of, 120 Commuter suburbs, 144 Commuting, 100, 144, 165 Complexity reduction, 56–57, 59 Computational back end, 5, 128 220 Index Congestion, 39–41, 140, 167–169 increase in, 167–168 nonrecurring,167 prediction of, 137 pricing,134–136 recurring,167 sources of, 167 Connectivity, 20–27, 37–51, 189–190 P.U.M.A.,75 wireless,4 Consensus building, 194, 196–197 Consumer appeal, 2, 27 Contact charging, 103 Controls electronic,3–4 mechanical,3 Convergence, technological, x, 2, 3, 5–6, 11, 35, 57 Cooperative driving, 21–23 Coordinated automobile movement, 51 Cost drivers, 56 Cost of driving, 12 Cost reduction, 24–25 Coulomb Technologies,107 Crash avoidance, 4, 26 Crash deceleration system, CityCar, 70 Crash-resistance features, 24 Crush zones, 70 Cugnot, Nicolas-Joseph, 10 Curitiba,1 71 Customization, 18, 29, 48–49 of the CityCar, 70–72 Daily driving ranges, 165 DARPA Urban Challenge, 20–21 Dashboards, 68, 154–155 Databases,39 Data streams, 38–39 Dedicated mobility layers, 41 Dedicated smart vehicle lanes, 41–44 Design renaissance, 27–28 Design roadmaps, 196–197 Designt rade-offs, 54, 65, 72 Desire,197 Destination(s) choices of, 153–154 search,15 Developing cities, 159, 163 Developing world, mobility demand in, 159, 163 Differential, 58 Digital control, 59, 65, 67–68 Direction and speed variation, 65 Displacement of traffic, 134 Disruptive innovation, 193, 195 Distributed computation and control, 39 Distributed energy systems, 122–124 Distributed vehicle access, 142 Door-to-door travel times, 46–47, 140, 142, 146 Drive-by-wire,67–68 Drive cycles, 170 Driver feedback, 25–26 Driveri nterface CityCar,6 7–68 Hy-wire,3 Driver performance, 26 Driving distances, 165 Driving experience, 49, 155 P.U.M.A.,77–79 Driving speeds, 3, 166 Dynamically priced markets, 124–125, 131–155 Dynamic pricing, 131–132 of electricity, 124–125 of mobility-on-demand systems, 147–151 of parking, 138–139 of roads, 137 of vehicles, 147–151 Dynamic stabilization, 64 P.U.M.A., 72–75, 77–79 Ecotality,102 Elasticity in electricity demand, 124 in travel behavior, 132–133, 136, 148–149, 153 Electric bicycles, 80, 159 Electric-drive automobiles, x, 4, 11, 14–19 Electric grid, 97, 101 load curves, 116 load leveling, 101, 115–118 Electricity distribution,98 prices,117–118 primary sources of, 91 trading, 101, 117–118, 121 Electric supply quality, 101 Electric utilities, 101 Electrification, 4, 5, 14–19, 24–27, 189–190 advantages of, 90–91 Electrified roadways, 110–111 Electrolysis,89 Emergency backup, 117 Enabling standards, 197 Enabling technologies, x, 5–6, 195–196 Encryption of time-position data, 134 Energy carriers,87–89 conversion systems, integration of, 127 costs, 85, 90 demand forecasts, 157 density,91–93 distribution infrastructure, 89 diversity, 5, 90–91 efficiency, 2, 26, 167–169, 176–177 resources,87 security, 86, 159 sources, renewable, x, 2, 87, 120–122 storage capacity, 115, 121, 122 supply,85–95 supply chains, 86–89 transfer rates, 98 Energy-efficient buildings, Engine compartment, elimination of, 31 Entertainment systems, 48 Entry and exit, 32–35, 66–67 Entry to buildings, 182–185 Index 221 High Cost of Free Parking,179 High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes, 41 High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes, 41 High-speed trains, 144–146 Horse and carriage, 9–10 Horseless carriage, 10–11, 28, 157 Hybrid electric vehicles, 4, 28, 57 Hydrogen, 4, 5, 89–90 infrastructure, 16, 24, 90 production,89–90 storage,122 Hy-wire,31 Evolutionary change, 13, 27, 193 EV1 electric vehicle, 28, 103 Extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs), 4, 14–17 Fast charging, 101–102, 104 Faure, Camille, 11 Federal Test Procedure, 170 First mile problem, 144–145 Florence, 182, 183 Folding mechanisms, 29–30, 67 Footprint carbon,4 spatial,4 Ford, Henry, 4, 11, 157 Fossilfuels efficient use of, 118–120 incremental phasing out, 118–120 Four-bar linkage, 67 Four-wheel steering, 65 Fractional vehicle possession, 140 Freedom of movement, 1, 2, 6, 13 Frontent ry CityCar,66–67 P.U.M.A., 75 Fuel cell(s), 14, 17, 28, 89–90 Fuel cell electric vehicles, 4, 15–17 Fuel economy and speed, 170–171 Idealized design, 194–195 Identification and authentication, 41, 138, 141 Imagination,197 Implementation, 7, 189–198 India,3 Induced demand, 167 Induction loops, 134 Inductive charging, 103 pads,108–109 walkways,109 Infrastructure renewal, 51 Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V) communication, 44 Injury, reducing chances of, 172–175 Innovator’s dilemma, 195 Insurance, 46, 82, 152 Integrated urban support systems, 124 Interdependencies, 1, 7, 194 Interfaces to the city, 154–155 Intermittent electricity sources, 120–122 Internal combustion engine (ICE), 3, 11–12 Internet, lessons of, 7, 14–20, 27, 35, 191–193 Interoperability, 192, 197 ITRI Light Electric Vehicle, 65 Gasoline disadvantages of, 85–86 storage and distribution, 97–98 General Motors, 5, 23 Generational improvements, 197 Gladwell, Malcolm, 195 GPS location tracking, 134 navigation, 20, 38, 154 Green garages, 105 Greenhouse gases, 1, 3, 86 Grid capacity, 101 222 Joystick,67–68 KAIST,110 Kettering, Charles, 11 Kinetic energy of crashes, 175 Index Land use patterns, 100 Last mile problem, 144–145 LEED green building rating system, 105 Leonardo da Vinci, Lincoln Tunnel bus, 176–178 Location awareness, Location-based advertising, 153–154 Location-based services, 45–46 London Congestion Charge Zone, 134–135 Look-ahead capabilities, 25 Maneuverability, 58, 65 Manhattan, 169, 186 Manhattan block, 179, 183 Market footholds, 7, 195–196, 197 Markets, dynamically priced, x, 5, 6, 124–125, 131–155 Martin, Roger, 194, 198 Masdar,41 Mass reduction, 24–27, 30 McCormick, J Byron, 14 McGahan, Anita, 194–195 Mesh networks, 38 Metering,5 Michelin Active Wheel System, 58 Micro-CHP systems, 120 MIT,5 MIT Media Laboratory, 56, 64 Mixed-use urban areas, 144 Mobile phones, 37 Mobile services, 51 Mobile wireless communication, 38 Mobility Internet, ix, 4, 6, 37–51 Mobility markets, 131–155 Mobility-on-demand systems, 139–151, 182–185 access points, 142–143 balancing,147 –151 buffering, 148 dynamic pricing, 147–151 maintenance,142–144 operating costs, 150–151 rental rates, 146 supply and demand, 146–151 temporal balance, 148–149 trip costs, 150–151 vandalism,142–144 waiting times, 146–147 Modal split, 162–163 Mode comparison, 177 Model T,157 Modularity, 25, 50, 59 CityCar,68–71 Montreal,141 Movement, freedom of, 1, 2, 6, 13 Multipliereff ects, 170 Mumbai,169 National Household Travel Survey data, 98–99 Negative externalities of automobile use, 170–171 Neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), 54–55, 176–177 Network scalability, 38–39 Networked computing and control (NCC) systems, 38–39 New York, 145, 160, 172–173, 176–178 Object detection, 20–21 Off-peak charging, 117 Olds, Ransom, 4, 11 Omnidirectional movement, 58 Onboard intelligence, 38, 127 One-way rental systems, 139–151 OnStar, 20, 38 Open standards, 113, 191–192 Operating reserve, 120–122 Optimization,148 of routes, 137–138 Optimum speed, 170–171 O-turn, 58, 65, 77 Overengineering, 13, 53 Overnight charging, 100 Paris, 141, 160–163 Index 223 Petroleum,3 consumption,3 supply,11 Pickup and drop-off transactions, 141 Pilot projects, Plante, Gaston, 11 Platooning, 25–26, 50 Plug-in hybrids, 14 Polycarbonate panels, 68–69 Population density, 160–164 Porsche, Ferdinand, 58 Positive network externalities, 7, 113, 192, 197 Price signals, 127, 152 Privacy,39 Project P.U.M.A., 72–79 See also P.U.M.A vehicle Public–private partnerships, 192, 197 P.U.M.A vehicle, viii, 30, 56, 64, 72–79 prototype,74 range of, 72 speed of, 72 styling,75–77 torque control, 77 Parking auctions,138 availability,138 costs,82 demand, 133, 140 demand smoothing, 132–133 density improvement, 179–183 footprints,180 garages, 104–106, 181 locations,99 lots, 179–183, 181 markets,1 38 meters,106 on-street,1 79–183 policies,138 price adjustment, 138 search, 45–46, 138, 147 space consumption, 169 space freed from, 182–184 space reduction, 32, 79, 179–185 stock management, 146–147 unmet demand, 182 Part count reduction, 59 CityCar,68–69 Passengerca bin CityCar,68 Hy-wire,31 Passenger comfort, 29 Peak loads, 116, 132–133 Pedestrian injuries, 175 Pedestrian public spaces, 182 Personal income, 160–164 Personalization, 18, 29, 48–49 CityCar,70–72 Personal mobility devices, 60–61 Personal mobility revolution, 28 Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) systems, 41 Personal urban mobility, 13, 27, 157–186 systems, x, 2, Personal Urban Mobility and Accessibility (P.U.M.A.) See P.U.M.A vehicle 224 Queues,147 Quick recharge stations, 102 Range, P.U.M.A., 72 Range anxiety, 100–101, 104 Real-time control, x, 39 electric grids, 125, 127–128 mobility-on-demand,150 parking,139 road space, 137 urban mobility systems, 153 Recharging cost, 15–16, 81, 117 Redundancy in parking systems, 132–133 in street systems, 132, 136 of systems for safety, 67 Regenerative braking, 58–59, 104, 170 Released real estate value, 182 Index Renewable electricity sources, 120–122 Renewable energy sources, 86 Repair and maintenance, 59 Residential areas, mobility-on-demand systems for, 146 Retail location theory, 142 Riding experiences, 49 Rittel, Horst, 194 Road building, 11–12 Road price adjustment or discounts, 134 Road safety, 23, 170, 172–175 Road signs, 154 Road space demand smoothing, 132–133 Roadway charging strips, 110–111 RoboScooter,64 Robot wheels, 58–59 Roppongi,146 Route cost minimization, 137 Route optimization, 137–138 Running-energy costs, 80–81 Safety content, 32 Safety improvements with USVs, 172–175 Safety systems, CityCar, 68–70 Scale problems, 193–194 Scooters,55–56 Seat belts, 174–175 Seat layouts, 54–56 Segway Personal Transporter (PT), 64, 72–73 Self-organization,132 Self-propelled vehicles, 10 Self-starter,11 Sensors, 5, 20–22, 39 Shared-use automobiles, 100, 139–151 Shared-use vehicles, theft of, 144 Shopping centers, 100 Shortest-path routes, 137 Short-term parking, 140 Shoup, Don, 179 Sidee ffects, 194 Simplicity, 56–57, 91 CityCar,68–69 Singapore, 140, 160–163 congestion pricing in, 134 Size reduction, 24–27, 30 Skateboard, electric-powered, 9–10, 19, 28–32 Smart buildings, 121 Smart curbs, 68, 107–109 Smart electric grids, x, 5, 6, 115–129 pilot implementations of, 127 Smart electric meters, 125–126 SmartGridCity,127 Smart streets, 106–107 Smart sustainability, 129 Social networking, 50–51 Solar energy, 120–122 Specific energy, 92 Speed, P.U.M.A., 72 Stacking USVs, 78–79 Stand-alone devices, 3–4, 51 Steam-powered automobiles, 10–11 Steer-by-wire systems, 18 Steering column, 29 Stratingh, Sibrandus, 11 Street amenity, 183 Street charging stations, 107 Street parking, electrified, 106–107 Suburbia,1 Supercapacitors,95 Superfob,48–49 Supply chains, 59 Sustainable cities, x, 6, 185–186 Swarming,41 Synergies( electrification and connectivity), 24–27 System-of-systems framework, Tailpipe emissions, 170 Taipei,143 Taiwan, 144, 146 Tank-to-wheels (TTW) carbon emissions, 88–89 Tank-to-wheels (TTW) energy efficiencies, 88–89 Tepco,102 Throughput, 166, 176–178 Index 225 Ultra Small Vehicles (USVs) SeeU SVs United States, Unsprung mass, 58 Urban activity systems, 99–100 Urban amenity, 179–185 Urban dead spots, 182 Urban diameters, 164–165 Urban driving distances, 165 Urban energy systems, 86 Urbanization, x, 2–3, 189–190 Urban mobility options, 54–55 Urban population, 157–158 Urban space competition, 169 Urban sustainability, 159 Urban vehicles, 56 Urban villages, 100 Urban wealth, 157 USVs,54–83 benefits of, 83 Utilization rates, 140 Time cost of walking, 142 Time savings, 51 Time use options, 49 Tipping points, 195–196, 197 Toll charges, 82 Torque control, 58 P.U.M.A., 77 Traditional cars, 57 Traffic accidents,170 fatalities,45 flow smoothing, 24–26, 39 law enforcement, 46 monitoring, 45–46, 134 noise,170–171 speeds,166 streams,39–41 Transaction times and costs, 141 Transformative ideas, ix–x, 5–6 Transit networks,144–145 stations,144–1 46 stops, density of, 145 Transit-oriented developments, 100 Transmission losses, 122 Transponders, 23, 44–45 Travel time, 25, 39–41 budgets,164–165 buffers, 40–41 Trip cost, 134–136 vehicle cost component of, 139 Trip optimization, 137–138 Trip planning, 46 Trip pricing, 152–153 Trip times, 25, 39–41 Turning radius, 58 Two-seat automobiles, 56 Two-way electricity flow, 122–123, 127 Two-way rental systems, 141 226 Vehicle demand smoothing, 149–151 Vehicle miles traveled (VMT), 157–159, 167 Vehicle ownership, 160–164 Vehicle-purchase costs, 80–81 Vehicle settings, 48–49 Vehicle stocks, management, 146–147 Vehicle supply and demand, spatial balance, 147–148 Vehicle telematics, 20 Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication, 23 Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication, 23 Vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communication, 23 Vehicle-to-vehicle communication (V2V), 20–21 Vehicle-to-vehicle crash data, 174 Vehicle tracking, 144 Vélib, 141, 148 Virtual towing, 148 Walking distances, 164–165 Warnings, to drivers and pedestrians, 44–45 Waste,1 Index Webber, Melvin, 194 Well-to-tank (WTT) carbon emissions, 88–89 Well-to-tank (WTT) energy efficiencies, 88–89 Well-to-wheels carbon emissions, 88–89 Well-to-wheels energy efficiencies, 88–89 Wheel(s),2 layouts, 28–29, 64–65 motors, 17, 57–58 Wicked problems, 194–196, 198 Wind energy, 120–122 Wireless charging, 111 Wireless networking, 20 Witricity,111 World population, 158 ZipCar,139 Index 227 [...]... ICE-powered automobiles affordable to large numbers of people.5 Finally, Ford’s introduction in 1914 of a $5-per-day The New DNA of the Automobile 11 pay scale enabled the production workers to purchase the products they built and helped set the stage for the growth of the middle class The rest is familiar history The internal combustion engine became the powerhouse that made the automobile the dominant... (Remember, the initiation of what became the Internet took place back in the late 1960s.) But the outcomes can include much more livable and sustainable cities, economic growth based on clean, green technologies, and prosperity and freedom for future generations Introduction 7 2 The New DNA of the Automobile The shape of today’s automobiles is derived from the placement of the engine (under the hood)... the power source At the other extreme, batteries can provide the onboard electricity for small urban vehicles with limited range Extended-range electric vehicles fill the gap between these two approaches and could be the best choice for the family sedan Another feature of electric-drive vehicles is that they can be driven either by central motors—which would suffice for most vehicles—or by motors in the. .. vehicles were being developed across Europe and the United States.3 Given the drawbacks of the first automobiles, at the turn of the twentieth century, the jury was still out on which propulsion system was the right solution for motorized transportation The internal combustion engine was gaining support in engineering circles, but most of the vehicles manufactured in the United States were still battery electric... networked computers on wheels These vehicles will be accurately located using GPS technology They will have the capability to sense objects all around them They will use wireless systems to communicate with other vehicles and with the roadside infrastructure Eventually, they will even be able to drive themselves and automatically avoid crashes There is a close analogy between these sorts of networked personal... expect most of the world’s population, together with 80 percent of the world’s wealth, to be concentrated by 2030 (according to the United Nations) Cities will continue to attract population because they provide the greatest access to resources and opportunities However, they are also the places where the energy, environment, safety, congestion, and access-inequality side effects of today’s automobiles... will be possible to realize the many benefits of by-wire chassis Wheel hub motor Lithium-ion battery Hydrogen storage tanks By-wire systems Fuel cell stack Wheel hub motor By-wire systems Front electric motor Figure 2.6 The skateboard of the fully electrified, drive-by-wire Chevrolet Sequel The New DNA of the Automobile 19 The New DNA (Part 2): Connectivity The other enabler of the new automotive DNA is... the improvements have been dramatic, the innovations themselves have been largely evolutionary In fact, the basic DNA of the automobile has not really changed all that much Just like the first massproduced automobiles, our vehicles continue to be powered by the internal combustion engine, energized by petroleum, driven and controlled mechanically, and operated as stand-alone devices Today, though, there... increase the vehicle’s useful range Having knowledge of traffic conditions in real time can also alert the driver to congestion along the normal route and give the driver a choice of finding an alternative, faster route that avoids the traffic buildup; the earlier this warning can be given, the greater the potential for fuel economy improvement With an electric-drive vehicle, the opportunity for improving the. .. cities The Combination of Transformative Ideas Taken individually, each of these four ideas offers significant individual and societal benefits Each can be implemented more or less separately When pursued together, though, they will have their greatest impact They have the potential to radically transform personal mobility in cities To illustrate their power in combination, chapter 9 explores their combined ... $5-per-day The New DNA of the Automobile 11 pay scale enabled the production workers to purchase the products they built and helped set the stage for the growth of the middle class The rest is... Introduction The New DNA of the Automobile The shape of today’s automobiles is derived from the placement of the engine (under the hood) and was a natural evolution from its predecessor, the horse... It weaves them together into a comprehensive vision for the future of automobiles, personal mobility systems, and the cities they serve The first idea is to transform the DNA—that is, the underlying