The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Procedural Aspects of International Law Monograph Series Roger S Clark, Series Editor (2004– ) Burns H Weston, Series Editor (1994–2004) Robert Kogod Goldman, Editor (1977–1994) Richard B Lillich, Editor (1964–1977) A complete list of publications in this series appears at the back of this volume The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor Holly Cullen The Procedural Aspects of International Law Monograph Series Volume 28 Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Leiden / Boston Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cullen, Holly The role of international law in the elimination of child labor / Holly Cullen p cm — (The procedural aspects of international law monograph series ; v 28) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-90-04-16285-3 Child labor—Law and legislation International law I Title K1821.C85 2007 344.01'31—dc22 2007034252 Copyright © 2007 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishers, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP All rights reserved No part of this public may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA Fees are subject to change Manufactured in the United States of America To my mother, Laurette Cullen, and to the memory of my father, William Cullen (1922–1999) Contents Preface and Acknowledgments xi Foreword xiii List of Abbreviations xv Note on ILO Conventions xvi Chapter 1: Introduction A Historical Perspective B Child Labor as a Human Rights Issue C Defining Child Labor D Structure of the Book Part I: International Standard-Setting in Child Labor: Examining the Priorities of International Law Chapter 2: Child Slavery and Slavery-Like Practices 13 A Introduction 13 B Definition of Slavery in International Treaties 14 C Example of Contemporary Forms of Child Slavery: Bonded Labor 17 D Forced Labor: International Standards and Supervision 23 E Slavery and State Responsibility Rules in International Law 30 F Conclusion 41 Chapter 3: Child Labor and the Sexual and Criminal Exploitation of Children 43 A Introduction 43 B International Legal Provisions on Trafficking of Children 46 C International Legal Provisions on Sexual Exploitation of Children 53 D Regional Measures on Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of Children 61 E International Legal Provisions on Criminal Exploitation of Children 69 F Problems with the Scope of Obligations 72 G Conclusion 74 vii viii • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor Chapter 4: Child Soldiers 77 A Introduction 77 B International Law Provisions 81 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949 (1977) 81 Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949 (1977) 83 Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) 84 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Children 87 Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) 88 ILO Convention No 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (1999) 89 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on Children in Armed Conflict (2000) 90 C Is the Prohibition Customary? 95 D Problems in Defining the Scope of the Prohibition 102 Armed Conflict 103 Direct Versus Indirect Participation in Hostilities 104 Recruitment 107 Non-State Forces 111 Nature of State Obligations in Relation to Child Soldiers 118 E Child Soldiers as a Child Labor Issue 119 F Child Soldiers and Joined-Up International Law 123 G Conclusion 132 Chapter 5: Critiques of Prioritization and Alternative Approaches to Regulating Child Labor 135 A Introduction 135 B Critiques and Defenses of Prioritization 136 C Alternative Approaches to Child Labor Priorities 139 Targeting Particular Sectors 141 a Child Domestic Workers 141 b Agriculture 147 Link to Education 149 D Rights of Working Children 152 E Conclusion: Can Prioritization Be Defended? 155 Part II: Implementation of Child Labor Norms Through International Law Chapter 6: International Treaty Supervision: State Reporting and Petition Systems 159 A Introduction 159 Contents • ix B ILO Implementation Procedures—State Reports and Complaints System 160 C Convention on the Rights of the Child—Reporting System 172 D European Social Charter—Reporting System and Collective Complaints Mechanism 177 E Crisis in International Human Rights Implementation: Implications for Child Labor 184 F Conclusion 187 Chapter 7: Child Labor and the International Trading System 189 A Introduction 189 B Reconsideration of the Legality of Trade Sanctions Under GATT 191 Concept of “Like Products” Under Article III GATT 196 Exemption Under Article XX GATT 202 a Public Morality 203 b Prison Labor 206 c Other Paragraphs of Article XX 207 d Chapeau and Its Relation to the Enumerated Paragraphs 207 C Utility and Appropriateness of Trade Sanctions 210 D Conditionality and Additionality in Trade and Development Measures 213 History of Preferential Treatment of Developing Countries in International Trade Law 213 Conditionality in GSP Regimes 216 Additional Preferences in the EU’s GSP Regime 219 WTO Compatibility Issues 221 E Conclusion 223 Chapter 8: Technical Assistance and Private Enforcement 225 A Introduction 225 B ILO Technical Assistance: IPEC and the Focus on Child Labor 227 C Regulating Child Labor Through Private Action: Corporate Social Responsibility Issues 232 Social Labeling 232 Corporate Codes of Conduct 237 Commodity-Based Agreements on Labor Standards 247 Internationalizing Corporate Social Responsibility 252 D Conclusion 262 Chapter 9: Conclusion 265 A Goals and Achievements of International Law 266 Creating Consensus 266 Table of Cases International Court of Justice Arrest Warrant Case (Democratic Republic of Congo v Belgium), 2002 I.C.J 3, 115 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain), Second Phase, 1970 I.C.J 3, 34-35 WHO Request for an Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons, 1997 I.C.J 84, 123 Permanent Court of International Justice Competence of the International Labor Organization, Series B, No 02-03, 161 Competence of the International Labor Organization, Series B, No 13, 161 Interpretation of the Convention of 1919 Concerning the Employment of Women during the Night, PCIJ (ser A/B), No 50, 161 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Prosecutor v Krnojelac, Case No IT-97-25-T, Judgment, ICTY TC (Mar 15, 2002), 32 Prosecutor v Kunarac et al., Case No IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, ICTY TC (Feb 22, 2001), 32 Prosecutor v Tadic, Case No IT-94-1-R, Judgment, ICTY AC (July 30, 2002), 104 Special Court for Sierra Leone Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman, Case No.SCSL-2004-14-AR72(E) (May 31, 2004), 31, 100-101, 268 World Trade Organization/GATT EC-Asbestos, WT/DS135/AB/R (Mar 12, 2001), 191, 199, 209 EC-Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan 16, 1998), 208-209 EC-Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas (EC-Bananas III), WT/DS27/AB/R (Sept 9, 1997), 221 289 290 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor U.S.- Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/R, Report of the Panel (May 15, 1998), 190-191, 193, 195, 198, 200-201, 203, 205, 207-208, 210, 212 U.S.-Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, DS21/R (Sept 3, 1991) and DS29/R (June 16, 1994), 192, 198, 201, 212 Committee Against Torture Elmi v Australia, Complaint No 120/1998, CAT/C/22/D/120/1998, views of May 14, 1999, I.H.R.R 603 (2000), 113 GRB v Sweden, Complaint No 83/1997, views of May 15, 1998, CAT/C/20/D/ 83/1997, I.H.R.R 395 (1999), 113 Human Rights Committee Herra Rubio v Columbia, Complaint No 161/1983, CCPR/C/31/D/161/1983, views of Nov 2, 1987, 114 Court of Justice of the European Communities Cassis de Dijon, Case 120/78, [1979] E.C.R 649, 236 Greenpeace International v Commission, Case C-321/95, [1998] E.C.R I-1651, 220 European Committee of Social Rights International Commission of Jurists v Portugal, Complaint No 1/1998, I.H.R.R 1142 (1999) (admissibility), I.H.R.R 525 (2000) (merits), 19, 142, 181-184 International Federation of Human Rights Leagues v Greece, Complaint No 7/2000, 182 Quaker Council for European Affairs v Greece, Complaint No 8/2000, 182 Syndicat des hauts fonctionnaires (SAIGI) v France, Complaint No 29/2005, 182 Syndicat national des professions du tourisme v France, Complaint No 6/1999, 183 European Court of Human Rights A v UK, 27 E.H.R.R 611 (1999), 114 Ahmed v Austria, 24 E.H.R.R 278 (1997), 113 Chahal v United Kingdom, 23 E.H.R.R 413 (1996), 113 D v United Kingdom, 24 E.H.R.R 423 (1997), 113 Ergi v Turkey, 32 E.H.R.R 18 (2001), 114 HLR v France ,26 E.H.R.R 29 (1998), 113 Siliadin v France, 43 E.H.R.R 16 (2006), 15, 114, 143, 269 Table of Cases • 291 Soering v United Kingdom, 11 E.H.R.R 439 (1989), 113-114 T v United Kingdom, 30 E.H.R.R 121 (2000), 109 Timurtas v Turkey, 33 E.H.R.R (2001), 114 X v Federal Republic of Germany, 46 D.R 22 (1974), 24 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights de Penha Fernandez v Brazil, Case No 12.051, Rep No 54/01 (Apr 16, 2001), I.H.R.R 173 (2002), 114 Inter-American Court of Human Rights Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras, 28 I.L.M 294 (1989), 114 Canada R v Sharpe, [2001] S.C.R 45, 57 India Chaudary v State of Madhya Pradesh, S.C.C 243 (1984), 20 Krishnan v State of Andra Pradesh and Others, A.I.R 2171 (1993) (Supreme Court of India), 20 Mehta v State of Tamilnadu and Others, BUTTERWORTHS HUMAN RIGHTS CASES 258 (1997) (Supreme Court of India), 20-21 United Kingdom R v A., [2001] U.K.H.L 25, 60 United States Ashcroft v The Free Speech Coalition, 535 U.S 234 (2002), 59 Doe I v Unocal Corporation, 41 I.L.M 1367 (2002) (U.S Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit), 33, 39, 269 Hamdan v Rumsfeld, 548 U.S -, 126 S Ct 2749 (2006), 81 United States v Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 U.S 259 (1990), 273 Other Case of the Major War Criminals, IMT Nuremburg, Judgment Nov 20, 1945, Slave Labor Policy, 32 Index AFL-CIO, 172, 217 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Charter), 16, 25, 26 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Children, 87, 118 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) states, 99, 215, 221–222 Alien Tort Claims Act, 39–40, 247, 269 American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), 16, 25, 26, 33 Amnesty International, 77, 130 Anti-Slavery International, 21, 22, 273 Armed conflict, international, 79, 81, 88, 104, 116, non-international or internal, 79, 81, 83, 84, 87, 88, 103, 104, 110, 111, 114, 116 Bangladesh, 93, 147, 148, 151, 165, 235 Birth registration, 87, 102–3, 124 “Blood” diamonds, 121 Bonded labor, 13, 17–23, 144, 148, 150, 175, 217 Burma, 23, 25–29, 34, 39, 119, 160, 169–172, 191, 201–202, 206, 217–218, 247, 262, 270 Canada, 93, 106, 149, 199, 209 Child labor abolitionist approach, 4, 8, 136–139, 155, 156, 176, 227, 271, 272 analogy to slavery abolition campaign, 2–3 agriculture, 2, 14, 18, 22, 29, 42, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 147–149, 156, 165, 176, 180, 238, 266 See also Child labor, cocoa plantations criminal prosecution, 56, 58, 59, 74, 114, 124, 164, 269, 273 customary international law aspects, 13–14, 30–36, 40, 42, 55, 95–102, 194 definition, 6–9, 266, 273 domestic service, 14, 18, 42, 46, 51, 52, 53, 104, 106, 136, 137, 140, 141–147, 149, 152, 156, 165, 176, 187, 266 drug trafficking, 5, 43, 70–72, 74, 121, 140 gender aspects, 30, 46, 51, 89, 105, 120, 142, 146, 147, 156 history, 1–3 idea of exploitation, 3–4, 6, 8, 23, 156, 172, 257, 273 link to education, 2, 18, 20, 22, 109, 120, 121, 124, 136, 138, 140, 142, 149–152, 164, 165, 167, 174, 175, 176, 187, 229, 231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 245, 250, 271, 272 minimum age for employment, 2, 4, 78, 120, 135, 147, 152, 155, 172, 175, 176, 205, 237, 238, 239, 241, 244, 247, 254, 255, 263, 266, 267 permissible child work, 119, 136, 138, 139 prioritization approach, 5, 42, 135–141, 155–156, 227, 238 rights of child workers, 152–155 situation of girls See Child labor, gender aspects worst forms of, 4–5, 8, 9, 13, 26, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 54, 70–71, 74, 78, 119, 121, 123, 133, 135, 137–139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148–149, 155–156, 164, 165, 204, 206, 213, 224, 228, 250, 255, 266 Child pornography, 43, 55, 56–57, 59, 62, 66–67, 70, 181 Child prostitution, 46, 54, 55, 56–57, 62, 66, 69 Child soldiers, 4, 5, 6, 14, 53, 77–133, 141, 156, 165, 175, 245, 265, 268 293 294 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor Child soldiers (continued) customary international law aspects, 95–102 direct participation in hostilities, 104–107 forced or compulsory recruitment, 80, 89, 90–93, 98, 110 indirect participation in hostilities liability to prosecution for war crimes recruitment, 82, 83, 84, 87, 90–93, 95, 98, 107–110 recruitment as a war crime 5, 31, 88, 101–102 reintegration and rehabilitation, 80, 84, 86, 93–94, 96, 108, 110, 112, 117, 118, 121, 125–126, 128–130, 132, 175 relation to child labor, 119–123 use by non-state forces, 111–118 voluntary recruitment, 78, 82, 83, 88, 90, 92–93, 95, 101, 106, 107–110, 116–117, 119, 120, 122 Childhood, definition, 1, 6–7, 85, 102 Children’s rights best interests principle, 4, 7, 48, 60, 67, 108 participation of children, 55–56, 108, 120, 131, 133, 150, 267, 271 child agency, 4, 45, 108–109, 119, 133, 138, child welfare, 4, 45, 61, 108, 119, 133, 241, 260 Civil society, 55, 190, 256, 258, 272 Clean Clothes Campaign, 238, 242, 244 Coalition for an International Criminal Court (CICC), 130–131 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), 77, 87, 95, 96, 100, 104, 107, 109, 117, 130–131 Cocoa Protocol, 238, 247–250, 269 Colombia, 85, 117 Committee on the Rights of the Child, 85, 93, 105, 118, 121, 123, 124, 126, 130, 159, 162, 166, 172–177, 186, 187 Common Code for the Coffee Community (Coffee Code), 250–252 Conscription, 23, 24, 32, 40, 88, 102, 107 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 46, 53 Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, 46 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 47 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 3, 4, 6, 43, 45, 47, 51, 54, 70, 73, 74, 84–86, 88, 95, 99, 102, 108, 110, 118, 119, 121, 124, 129, 130, 131, 136, 138, 159, 160, 172–177, 185, 195, 239, 240, 252, 257, 263, 266, 267, 269, 270 Convention on the Rights of the Child, Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, 5, 74, 77, 80, 90–94, 95, 98, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 112, 115, 116, 118, 120, 123, 130, 131, 266, 268 Convention on the Rights of the Child, Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, 5, 48, 51, 54, 56, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 204, 266, 268 Convention on the Rights of the Child, state reporting process, 172–177 Corporate Codes of Conduct (CCCs), 9, 226, 227, 232, 237–247 monitoring, 242–246 origins, 237 particular companies, Hennes and Mauritz, 239–240, 243, 245, 263 IKEA, 239, 240–241, 243, 245, 263 Marks and Spencer, 226, 241, 243 Index • 295 Nike, 241–242, 244 range of standards covered, 237–239, 245 relationship to international standards, 237–238 Corporate social responsibility, 225, 232, 233, 236, 246, 247 international aspects, 252–262 organizational integrity approach, 235, 236, 245, 246 voluntarism, 258, 259, 260, 272 Council of Europe, 6, 48, 61, 63, 64, 66, 177, 180, 181, 269 Committee of Ministers, 61, 63, 17, 178, 179, 183, 184 Convention Against Trafficking in Human Beings, 6, 48, 64–269, 272 Parliamentary Assembly, 51, 179 Counter-measures, 36, 38, 39 Criminal exploitation of children, 69–72 Debt bondage, 13, 15, 17–19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 30, 42, 44, 64, 72 See also Bonded labor Democratic Republic of Congo, 89, 94, 97, 117, 121, 126, 127, 165 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 67 ECPAT (End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes), 44, 55, Education, 2, 18, 20, 22, 73, 106, 109, 120, 121, 124, 128, 136, 138, 140, 142, 146, 149–152, 155, 164, 165, 167, 174, 175, 176, 185, 187, 229, 231, 232, 233, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 245, 248, 250, 252, 253, 255, 260, 267, 271, 272, 273 Environmental protection, 192, 203, 208, 209, 259 Ethical consumption, 198 Ethical Trading Initiative, 238, 241, 242 Ethiopia, 251 European Committee on Social Rights (ECSR), 142, 154, 159, 160, 177–184, 185, 187 European Community, 65, 154, 223 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), 16, 25, 33, 60 113, 114, 143, 156, 159, 169, 177, 182, 183, 184, 207, 211, 269 European Parliament, 99, 233, 260 European Social Charter, 4, 25, 26, 120, 129, 142, 153–154, 159, 160, 177–184, 185, 261, 268 Collective Complaints Protocol, 129, 181–184, 185 Revised, 4, 26, 153, 177, 178, 180 role of Governmental Committee, 177, 178, 179 state reporting process, 177–181 European Trade Union Confederation, 217, 220, 221 European Union (EU), 22, 41, 53, 61, 64, 65, 99, 155, 191, 202, 209, 215, 216, 218, 219–222, 229, 254, 259–262, 263, 271 Commission of the European Communities, 219, 229, 259–262 and corporate social responsibility, 259–262 Export Processing Zones, 213 Extradition, 43, 56, 58, 113, 114, 273 Extraterritorial jurisdiction, 39, 41, 56, 200, 201, 208, 273 Fair Labor Association, 243, 244 Fair trade, 226–227, 236, 237, 249, 250, 251, 252, 263 Forced labor, 6, 8, 13, 14, 23–29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 48, 71, 114, 119, 121, 141, 143, 144, 145, 149, 156, 160, 166, 169, 170, 171, 172, 182, 185, 191, 201, 202, 206, 217, 218, 220, 250, 256, 269, 270, 272 France, 143, 154 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 189, 190, 191–216, 221–223 296 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (continued) concept of “like products,” 196–202 exceptions, 202–210 general principles (“chapeau”), 207–210 prison labor, 206 protection of health, 207 protection of the environment, 207 public morality, 203–205 principle of national treatment, 196 product-process distinction, 196–199 Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), 213–223 additional preferences, 219–221 conditionality, 216–218 European Union, 215, 216, 217–221 United States, 216–217 WTO-compatibility, 221–223 Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, common articles, 81, 83, 101, 102, 107, 116 Global March against Child Labor, 230, 267 Guantanamo Bay, 109 Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Cooperation in Respect of Inter-Country Adoption, 47 Hennes and Mauritz, corporate code of conduct, 239–240, 243, 245, 263 Human Rights Committee, 114, 162 Human rights treaties, derogations, 84 Human Rights Watch, 108, 130 Human rights default duties, 112, 202 nature of state obligations (respect, protect, fulfil), 112, 113, 224, 257 positive and negative obligations of states, 111–114, 223, 224, 269 treaties, criticisms of state reporting systems, 185–187 IKEA, corporate code of conduct, 239, 240–241, 243, 245, 263 ILO Constitution, 27, 119, 123, 139, 161, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172 ILO Convention No 5, ILO Convention No 10, 2, 147–148 ILO Convention No 29, 24–25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 160, 166, 169, 171, 218, 250, 262 ILO Convention No 33, 144, 240 ILO Convention No 105, 23, 24, 25, 31, 250 ILO Convention No 138, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 120, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 144, 147, 150, 154, 155, 156, 163, 164, 166, 167, 171, 172, 176, 205, 226, 227, 228, 232, 233, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 246, 250, 253, 254, 255, 257, 263, 266 269 ILO Convention No 182, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 26, 31, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 78, 89, 94, 95, 97, 102, 106, 107, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 130, 131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 155, 156, 163, 164, 165, 166, 172, 173, 176, 181, 202, 204, 205, 206, 213, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 233, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 250, 253, 254, 255, 257, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269 ILO Declaration of Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 3, 7, 8, 25, 40, 41, 137, 138, 159, 167, 201, 205, 216, 219, 223, 235, 252, 253, 259, 261, 265, 269 ILO Recommendation No 190, 4, 27, 70, 71, 115, 124, 135, 137, 143, 147, 148, 156, 163, 225, 227 Index • 297 International Labor Organization (ILO), 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13,18, 22, 23, 26–29, 32, 40, 44, 61, 70, 89, 112, 121, 122–123, 135, 136–140, 141, 144–145, 147, 149, 156, 159, 160–172, 177, 179–180, 181, 185, 187, 190, 191, 192–193, 196, 201, 202, 211–212, 217, 218, 227–232, 233, 248, 249, 253–254, 259, 262, 265, 266, 267, 268, 270, 272 Commission of Inquiry, 26–29, 34, 119, 153, 163, 168–170, 201, 218, Committee of Experts, 27, 121, 137, 139, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 169, 187 Conference Committee on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, 122 161, 162, 166, 167, 169, Conventions Complaints, 163, 168, 171, 172 Representations, 163, 168, 171, 172 state reporting process, 161–167 individual observations, 164, 165, 166, 172, 218 reports on unratified Conventions, 167 special paragraphs, 167 Director General, 161, 166, 172 Governing Body, 161, 168, 169, 170, 171, 253, 254 Governing Body, Subcommittee on Multinational Enterprises, 254 Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy, 253–254 India, 18–21, 22, 23, 150, 176 Instituto Prũ Crianỗa, 234 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 98, 114 Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors, 47–48, 67 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 115, 131 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) (now the International Trade Union Confederation), 170, 217, 221, International Court of Justice, 34, 35, 123, 160, 161, 168, 169, 171 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 16, 25, 31, 33, 162, 186 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 3, 26, 159, 172, 257, 261, 263 International Criminal Court, 5, 32, 88, 97, 129, 268 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 32, 40, 104, International humanitarian law, 31, 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 88, 93, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, 115, 116, 119, 122, 123, 124, 131, 132, 257 International Labor Conference, 5, 122, 130, 147, 149, 150, 161, 163, 166, 168, 169, 170, 267 International Labor Office, 161, 162 International Labor Rights Fund, 217, 349, 252 International Law Commission (ILC), 13, 32–34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 269 International Organization for Migration, 68, 75 International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC), 2, 4, 8, 22, 23, 44, 52, 53, 68, 106, 121, 136, 139, 143, 144, 147, 148, 151, 159, 164, 166, 176, 191, 207, 225, 227–232, 234, 262, 265, 272 effectiveness, 231–232 Memorandums of Understanding, 228 monitoring, 231 Time-Bound Programs, 229 298 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor International Standards Organization (ISO), 234 Jus cogens or peremptory norms of international law, 13, 14, 28, 30, 32–34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 205, 269 Kosovo, 78, 103, 109 League of Nations Slavery Convention, 14, 30 Lomé Conventions, 99, 215, 221, 222 Lord’s Resistance Army, 88–89 Machel, Graca, 78, 85, 100, 117, 126 Marks and Spencer corporate code of conduct, 241, 243 selling fair trade goods, 226 Myanmar See Burma Nepal, 19, 22, 23, 175, 229 Nestlé, 251 Nike, corporate code of conduct, 241–242, 244 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 6, 52, 55, 63, 68, 69, 74, 80, 85, 90, 92, 100, 103, 108, 109, 117, 122, 124, 126, 127, 129–131, 132, 151, 156, 160, 162, 163, 173, 178, 180, 181, 182, 185, 186, 190, 191, 211–212, 220, 221, 230, 232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 255, 258, 262, 267, 268, 272 Non-state armed forces, 52, 79, 81, 83, 84, 87, 100, 102, 104, 107, 111–117, 118, 121, 123, 127, 128, 131 Norms Erga omnes, 13, 34–35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 269 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, 252–253, 259 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 149, 190, 210, 252–253, 259 Organization of American States (OAS), 47, 98 Oxfam, 190, 250, 251, 252 Pakistan, 18, 21–22, 165, 217, 218, 229, 230, 265, 272 Peacekeeping, 78, 97, 112, 125, 126 Pornography, 45, 140, 203–205 See also Child pornography Prostitution, 14, 17, 30, 45, 46–48, 51, 53, 68–69, 140 See also Child prostitution Protectionism, 192, 196, 197, 201, 205, 212, 214 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, 81–82, 84, 94, 98, 103 Protocol II Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, 83, 84, 87, 94, 103, 107, 116 Rehabilitation of child soldiers, 80, 84, 86, 93–94, 96, 108, 110, 112, 117, 118, 121, 125–126, 128–130, 132, 175 Rehabilitation of child workers, 19, 20, 44, 52, 55, 60–61, 62–63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 164, 175, 225, 226, 231, 242, 245 Right to education, 20, 106, 152, 185, 267, 273 Rugmark, 233, 234, 237 Rwanda, 110 SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, 68–69 Servitude or servile status, 15, 16, 23, 25, 143, 156, 269 Sexual exploitation of children, 6, 17, 43–46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53–61, 61–66, 68–69, 122, 141, 145, 165, 174, 175, 181, 204, 265, 267, 272, 273 Index • 299 Sierra Leone, 52, 85, 94, 96, 97, 121, 126, 128, 133 Slavery, 2–3, 4, 5, 13–23, 24, 29, 30–36, 40–41, 42–43, 65, 69, 71, 105, 122, 143, 144, 145, 156, 247, 269, 273 Slavery-like practices, 3, 4, 5, 13–14, 13–23, 24, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 41, 42–43 Social Accountability International (SAI), 234, 236 SA8000 standard, 234–236, 238 Social labeling, 9, 226, 232–237, 238, 260, 261, 263, 269 effectiveness, 234, 236–237 relationship to international standards, 233, 235, 236, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), 68–69 Special Court for Sierra Leone, 31, 88, 100, 101–102, 110, 268 Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, 48, 52, 59, 70, 166 Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict, 77, 79, 80, 85, 92, 96, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109, 117, 119, 121, 123–130, 132–133, 166 State Responsibility, 13, 29, 30–41, 194, 269 Sudan, 16, 89, 110, 117, 126 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 15, 16, 18, 25, 31, 41, 144, 147 Technical assistance, 2, 4, 22, 32, 63, 149, 225–232, 259, 262 Trade sanctions, 36, 41, 189–213, 223–224 appropriateness, 189, 191, 210–213, 223, 233 legality, 191–210 Trafficking, definition, 46–52 Trafficking in children, 13, 14, 17, 30, 43–53, 61–69, 72–75, 141, 144–145, 156, 164–166, 174, 175–176, 181, 187, 265, 269, 272 immigration aspects, 52, 53 Traidcraft, 226 Treaties implementation through state reporting, 159–167, 172–177, 178–181, 184–187 petition systems, 168–172, 181–184 rate of non-reporting by states, 160, 163, 177, 179, 185 reservations, 31, 93, 122, 176, 178, 266 Tripartitism, 163, 196 Uganda, 88–89, 98, 110, 245 UNICEF, 22, 44, 52, 55, 68, 75, 85, 94, 95, 100, 105, 110, 121, 124, 127, 128, 129, 142, 152, 166, 174, 175, 176, 207, 230, 234, 245, 271 United Kingdom, 1, 23, 58, 60, 64, 77–78, 90, 92, 106, 107, 120, 122, 144, 149, 154, 176, 181, 186, 273 United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (Trafficking Protocol), 5, 48–52, 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72–74, 156 250, 272 United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, 5, 49, 65 United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 54, 85, 127, 140 Economic and Social Council, 162 General Assembly, 36, 78, 127, 177 300 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor United Nations (continued) Special Session on Children, 125, 132 Global Compact, 255–257, 258–259 principle of voluntarism, 255, 256 comparison with United Nations, Norms on the @IDX4:Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights, 258–259 relation to international standards, 255 High Commissioner on Human Rights, 72, 85, 258, 262 Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights, 257–259 comparison with Global Compact, 258–259 relation to international standards, 257 implementation mechanisms, 258 principle of voluntarism, 258, 259 Secretary-General, 47, 78, 91, 95, 96, 97, 101, 104, 108, 111, 117, 122, 124, 126, 127, 130, 255, 259, 269 Security Council, 36, 94, 95, 96–98, 101, 115, 121, 124, 126, 127, 132, 133 Special Representative on human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises, 259 Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, 41, 257, 262, 270 United States of America, 1, 77, 92, 101, 106, 122, 149, 165, 186, 195, 200–201, 206, 208, 212, 217, 233, 256, 269, 273 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 16, 17, 201 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 35, 39, 194 Voluntarism, 192, 258, 259, 260, 272 Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, 97, 131 Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, 22, 41, 144, 166 World Congress against the Sexual Exploitation of Children, 55, 267 World Social Forum, 246 World Trade Organization (WTO), 41, 189–211, 215, 216, 221–224, 232, 236, 271, 272 Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, 208, 236 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 193, 195 Appellate Body, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 200–201, 202, 203, 205, 207, 208–210, 212 Dispute Settlement Understanding, 192, 198, 209, 222, 224 Doha Development Round of negotiations, 190, 211, Seattle Ministerial Conference, 189, 222 Singapore Ministerial Declaration, 190, 195–196, 210, 211, 213 Young Workers Directive, 94/33/EC, 4, 154–155 About The Procedural Aspects of International Law Institute The Procedural Aspects of International Law Institute is a nonprofit organization devoted to furthering the observance of international law through research, consulting, and publishing monographs and other educational materials Established in 1965 by academic lawyers, government officials, and private practitioners, the Institute’s activities include work in areas as diverse as international claims settlements, a draft convention on terrorism, the concept of autonomy in international law, the reform of international organizations and institutions and the international protection of human rights The twenty-eight volumes of the PAIL Monograph Series represent the only continuously-edited series of books and monographs on international law in the United States The Institute has consultative status with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations For further information on the Institute and its activities, write PAIL Institute, P.O Box 33016, Farragut Station, Washington, D.C 20033-0016 or send e-mail to advice@fedcounsel.com Procedural Aspects of International Law Monograph Series Roger S Clark, Series Editor (2004– ) Burns H Weston, Series Editor (1994–2004) Robert Kogod Goldman, Editor (1977–1994) Richard B Lillich, Editor (1964–1977) [Volumes 1–18 are available from William S Hein & Company, 1285 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14209-1987 (tel: + 800-828-7571; fax: + 716-883-8100; email: mail@wshein.com) Volumes 19–21 are available from The University of Pennsylvania Press, Hopkins Fulfillment Services, P.O Box 50370, Hampden Station, Baltimore, MD 21211(tel: + 800-445-9880; fax: + 40-516-6998) All other volumes are available from Martinus Nijhoff/Brill, P.O Box 605, Herndon, VA 20172 (tel: + 800-337-9255; fax: + 1-703-661-1501; email: cs@brillusa.com).] Richard B Lillich International Claims: Their Adjudication by National Commissions 1962 Richard B Lillich and Gordon A Christenson International Claims: Their Preparation and Presentation 1962 Richard A Falk The Role of Domestic Courts in the International Legal Order 1964 Gillian M White The Use of Experts by International Tribunals 1965 Richard B Lillich The Protection of Foreign Investment: Six Procedural Studies 1965 Richard B Lillich International Claims: Postwar British Practice 1967 Thomas Buergenthal Law-Making in the International Civil Aviation Organization 1969 302 • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor John Carey UN Protection of Civil and Political Rights 1970 Burns H Weston International Claims: Postwar French Practice 1971 10 Frank Griffith Dawson and Ivan L Head International Law, National Tribunals, and the Rights of Aliens 1971 11 Ignaz Seidl-Hohenveldern The Austrian-German Arbitral Tribunal 1972 12 Richard B Lillich and Burns H Weston International Claims: Their Settlement by Lump Sum Agreements 1975 13 Durward V Sandifer Evidence Before International Tribunals (Revised Edition) 1975 14 Roger Fisher, Improving Compliance with International Law 1981 15 Richard B Lillich and Burns H Weston, eds International Claims: Contemporary European Practice 1982 16 Frederic L Kirgis, Jr Prior Consultation in International Law: A Study of State Practice 1983 17 David Harris The European Social Charter 1984 18 Richard A Falk Reviving the World Court 1986 19 Joan Fitzpatrick Human Rights in Crisis: The International System for Protecting Rights During States of Emergency 1993 20 Roger S Clark The United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Program: Formulation of Standards and Efforts at Their Implementation 1994 21 Sean D Murphy Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations in an Evolving World Order 1996 22 Douglas M Johnston Consent and Commitment in the World Community: The Classification and Analysis of International Instruments 1997 23 Burns H Weston, Richard B Lillich, and David J Bederman International Claims: Their Settlement by Lump Sum Agreements, 1975–1995 1999 24 Paul Conlon United Nations Sanctions Management: A Case Study of the Iraq Santions Committee, 1990–1994 2000 25 David Harris The European Social Charter (Second Edition) 2001 26 Kirsten A Young, The Law and Process of the U.N Human Rights Committee 2002 27 Shane Darcy, Collective Responsibility and Accountability Under International Law 2006 28 Holly Cullen, The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor 2007 Index • 303 Other PAIL Institute Publications Transnational Publishers, Inc Hannum, Hurst Guide to International Human Rights Practice—Third Edition (1999) Fitzpatrick, Joan, ed Human Rights Protection for Refugees, AsylumSeekers, and Internally Displaced Persons: A Guide to International Mechanisms and Procedures (2001) Hannum, Hurst, ed Guide to International Human Rights Practice—Fourth Edition (2004) William S Hein & Co., Inc Hannum, Hurst Materials on International Human Rights and U.S Constitutional Law (1985) Hannum, Hurst Materials on International Human Rights and U.S Criminal Law (1989) Lillich, Richard B., ed Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations (1973) Lillich, Richard B., ed Economic Coercion and the New International Economic Order (1976) Lillich, Richard B Transnational Terrorism: Conventions and Commentary (1982) together with 1986 Supp Lillich, Richard B The Human Rights of Aliens in Contemporary International Law (1984) University of Pennsylvania Press Hannum, Hurst Autonomy, Sovereignty and Self-Determination: The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights (1990) Kluwer Academic Publisher Hannum, Hurst The Right to Leave and Return in International Law and Practice (1987) ... relating to child labor Some overall conclusions about the role of international law in the elimination of child labor, including the limits of international law methods of addressing this problem,... list of publications in this series appears at the back of this volume The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor Holly Cullen The Procedural Aspects of International Law. .. Id., 66 TER • International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor approaches to eliminating exploitative child labor These patterns are reflected more recently in the International Labor Organization’s