Chapter Human Resource Training and Development 6.1 Motivation A vital managerial function in any organization is to motivate employees This is because motivation is inextricably linked to employee satisfaction and ensures employees consistently excel at their jobs Motivation is especially important in the hospitality industry, where employee satisfaction and competence are key determinants of service quality Self-assessment 6.1.1 Definition Specially, motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need This definition suggests that although individuals may work toward common group or organizational goals, their willingness to so is related to their individual needs Motivation plays a major role in achieving high performance in the workplace But just because an employee is motivated does not guarantee she will perform satisfactorily As illustrated in figure 3-1, changing the performance of workers is rather more complicated than just “motivating” them Before an organization motivates their employees, it needs to recognize the following points: Employees’ needs vary from one person to another To accommodate the diverse needs of employees, a variety of motivational strategies must be implemented throughout the organization 6.1.2 Motivation Theories There are a number of motivation theories that are well known and have popular support among users These include: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Herzberg’s two-factor theory McClelland’s manifest needs theory Expectancy theory Equity theory Reinforcement theory To explore these theories and strategies in the context of the hospitality industry, we will begin by categorizing each theory according to whether it is most relevant at the individual, group, or organizational level Each theory will be further classified as either a content theory or a process theory Content theories explain “why” someone is motivated to undertake some activity Process theory, in contrast, describe “how” the individual becomes motivated in the first place and sustains that motivation over a period of time These theories offer an explanation of the actual means by which someone becomes and stays motivated (Table 3-1 presents such categorization) Table 6-1 categorization of motivation theory Motivation theory Level of greatest applicability Content or process theory Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Individual Content Herzberg’s two-factor theory Individual Content Individual Content Group Process individual Process Organization Content/process McClelland’s theory manifest Equity theory Expectancy theory Reinforcement theory needs Hierarchy of needs theory In 1940s, Abraham Maslow’s research led him to the realization that motivation can stem from a variety of needs that are ordered in a particular hierarchy way Maslow thus developed a motivational theory based on this hierarchy of needs Underlying this theory is the notion that a person is moved to engage in behavior that will satisfy the predominant need experienced at that particular time The hierarchical ordering of the potential needs is illustrated in figure 3-2 Maslow viewed physiological needs as basic survival needs: the need for food, water, shelter, and so on Safety needs include protection from both real and psychological harm The third level of need, love, includes our need to be with others and to be loved or appreciated This need includes the need to have friends and to feel accepted as a family or group member Esteem needs refer to a need for self-respect, a sense of personal worth, recognition for accomplishments, a feeling of self-confidence, and prestige Selfactualization, the highest level of need, refers to the need to develop to one’s full potential, to accomplish to the full extent of one’s capabilities SelfActualization Esteem Love Safety Physiological Figure 6-2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs In application, this theory suggests that as a basic need is met the next need be experienced as unfulfilled, and it then becomes the primary motivating factor as well ad the main stimulus of action Say, an individual who had adequate food and shelter and who felt safe from potential threats would be motivated to meet love needs The self-actualization need is never totally satisfied, so the need survives with the individual If a person’s lowerorder need is threatened, the higher needs would be lost until that threat is removed Maslow’s theory is appealing because it can be readily applied to the workplace If managers can determine which of an employee’s need are unmet, they can strive to meet those needs motivating the employee to greater productivity Although it has been criticized as being too simplistic, Maslow’s work has been the basis for the development of other motivation theories Two-Factor Theory According to Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which he developed in the 1960’s, the satisfaction of a need has one of two effects It either causes employees to be satisfied with their jobs or it prevents employees from being dissatisfied with their jobs Herzberg labeled the factors associated with job dissatisfaction “hygiene factors”, indicating an analogy to the concept of preventive maintenance The factors associated with job satisfaction were labeled “motivators” to suggest their effectiveness in evoking individual behavior toward superior performance Interestingly, Herzberg’s hygiene factors correspond closely to Maslow’s two lower-level needs (physical and safety needs) The motivators identified by Herzberg are akin to Maslow’s higher-level needs of esteem and selfactualization This suggests that meeting lower-order needs can only prevent job dissatisfaction; to achieve job satisfaction requires the fulfillment of higher-order needs Manifest Needs Theory This theory developed by David McClelland in the 1950s, is based on the idea that needs are derived from personality It suggests that needs ate developed, and thus motivators are acquired, as people interact with environment According to McClelland, all people possess, in vary degree, the need for: Achievement Power Affiliation The need for Achievement People with a high need for achievement tend to:  Take personal responsibility for solving problems  Be goal oriented  Set moderate, realistic, attainable goals  Seek challenges, excellence, and individuality  Take calculated, moderated risk  Desire concrete feedback on their performance To motivate employees with a high need foe achievement, a manager needs to provide them with:  Nonroutine, challenging tasks in which there are clear attainable objectives  Prompt and frequent feedback on their performance  Increased responsibility for doing new things The need for power People with a high need for power tend to:  Want to control the situation  Want influence or control over others  Enjoy competition in which they can win (they don’t like to lose)  Be willing to confront others To motivate employees with a high need for power, managers should:    Let them plan and control their jobs as much as possible Try to include them in decision making, especially when they are affected by the decision They tend to perform best alone rather than as a team member Try to assign them to a whole task rather than a part if the task The need for affiliation People with a high need for affiliation tend to:  Seek close relationships with others  Want to be liked by others  Enjoy lots of social activities  Seek to belong (they often join groups and organizations) To motive employees with a need foe affiliation, managers should:    Be sure to let them work as part of a team They derive satisfaction from the people with whom they work rather than from the task itself Give them lots of praise and recognition Delegate responsibility for orienting and training new employees to them They make great buddies and mentors Expectancy Theory It is a process theory that indicates whether a person is motivated depends on two expectancies and one valence The first expectancy involves the probability that an employee will be able to make a connection between her level of effort and the performance that derived from this effort For motivation to occur, the employee must believe that if she puts forth a reasonable effort, there is a high probability that she will be able to meet expected performance standards We refer this as E – P (effort – performance) expectancy The second expectancy involves the probability that the employee will be able to link her level of performance to the rewards she receives for the performance In other words, a high level of motivation will occur only if the employee believes there is a high probability of being rewarded for satisfactory performance We refer it as the P – R (performance – reward) expectancy The valence that is import to motivation is that which is attached to the reward This means that in order for a reward to have high value as a motivator, it must have a high valence for the employee That is, the employee will only be motivated to work hard if the reward id something that she finds desirable Putting the elements of the expectancy theory together, a high level of motivation occurs when there is a high expectancy that one’s effort will yield satisfactory performance and that this performance will result in the attainment of one’s desired rewards Figure 3-3 illustrates how the components of the expectancy theory work together to produce a high level of motivation in an employee Table 3-2 shows predicted levels of motivation as a function of the expectancies and valence that are functional to the expectancy theory Table 6-2 predict levels of motivation according to expectancy theory E—P P—R Reward valence Predict level of motivation low low low Very low low low High low low High low low low High High low High low low low High low High Moderate High High low moderate High High High High Equity Theory This is a theory which can be used to motivate groups At the group level, motivation is important in establishing effective and productive work groups Employee behavior is also influenced by the presence and actions of others In some instance, group influence can be as powerful as individual needs are in driving behavior Equity theory is a process theory that is based on the idea that people motivated by fairness, an important social value in North America According to this theory, people compare how much they are being rewarded for their performance to how much others in their peer group are being rewarded for their performance If employees perceive an inequity, they will be motivated to change their behavior to create an equity situation If employees feel equitably rewarded, their combination of performance and rewards is perceived as being equal to that of their peers and they will be motivated to continue their current behavior A perception of inequity will ultimately lead an employee to one of two conclusions The employee will either feel (1) underrewarded or (2) overrewarded An employee who feels underrewarded might try to reduce the inequity with one or more of the following actions: Trying to get an increased reward Rationalizing a logical reason for the inequity Doing less work Getting others to more work Leaving the situation An employee who feels overrewarded might try to reduce the inequity with one or more of the following actions: Working harder or longer Rationalizing that “I’m worth it.” Taking a pay cut (a rare occurrence) Trying to get more rewards for the peer group Using equity theory can be challenging for managers because it forces them to deal with employees’ perception rather than facts In addition, it is not always possible to know who belongs to the peer group to which the employee is comparing himself Equity theory offers managers some general recommendations: It is important for managers to understand their employees’ perceptions of equity Rewards should be perceived to be fair by all involved parties Organizations with clearly stated objectives, clearly stated standards of performance, and an effective performance appraisal system will have fewer problems with perceptions of inequity The Hawthorne Effect In the late of 1920s, a Harvard University researcher named Elton Mayo conducted studies at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effect of work environment on productivity They study proceeded by first selecting a group pf workers to participate in the research project These workers carried out their duties in an area that was set apart from the rest of the plant In this area Mayo varied the lighting levels and ventilation and measured the effect of these changes on productivity Much to his surprise, with every change – whether to increase or decrease lighting and ventilation – productivity increased By interviewing the employees, he realized that the productivity increase was not caused by the environmental changes in the workplace Rather, the productivity increase resulted from the employees feeling important This increased productivity, caused by such group influences, is called “Hawthorne Effect” The Hawthorne studies concluded: “That group influences were significant in affecting individual behavior, that group standards were highly effective in establishing individual worker output, and that money was less a factor in determining worker output than group standards, sentiments, and security.” Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory cannot be neatly categorized as either a process or content theory of motivation because it attempts to explain both why an individual is motivated to behave in a certain way and how an individual becomes motivated The essence of applying reinforcement theory for motivational purposes in the workplace is to promote desirable employee behaviors by following up any good behaviors with positive consequences and to deter undesirable employee behaviors by following up any unwanted behaviors with unpleasant consequences The type of reinforcement that can be employed to influence behavior include the following: Positive reinforcement An attractive reward for desired behavior.(e.g praise or a monetary bonus for exceptional sales.) Avoidance reinforcement Removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behavior (e.g employee comes to work on time because of the negative consequences of being late.) Extinction Withholding of response ( consequence ) for undesirable behavior (e.g supervisor ignores employee’s complaints about a co-worker) Punishment An undesirable consequence for undesirable behavior (e.g putting employee on probation or taking away privileges.) Managers can use any of these various types of reinforcement to motivate employees However, for the best results, managers should be mindful of the following guidelines when using reinforcement theory to motivate employees: Generally, positive reinforcement is the best motivator Select appropriate rewards; a reward to one person could be considered an insult or punishment to another Punishment is the least effective method of motivating an employee Do not reward mediocre or poor performance Ensure that employees know what is expected of them Despite the fact that punishment is the least effective way to motivate employees, many managers still rely on it heavily The use of punishment can be particularly detrimental in service-oriented organizations where employee satisfaction and customer happiness ate often inextricably linked Employee recognition programs are one way in which positive reinforcement commonly used in the hospitality industry (McDonald’s example) 6.1.3 Motivation Techniques Praise A simple and effective way to increase motivation is to give praise Praise is probably the most powerful, simple, and underused motivational technique The following tips are useful when giving praise to employees: Tell the employee exactly what was done well Be specific Tell the employee why the behavior is important Stop for a moment of silence so that the praise can sink in try accounting to Encourage a repeat of the performance For example “Thanks Mary, keep up the good work.” Be sincere Praise is important to the individual’s esteem Job Enrichment Job enrichment refers to the vertical expansion of jobs, raises motivation by making work more interesting and challenging for employees It does it by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of his or her job Before implementing job enrichment, managers should ensure that the technique is suitable to both the job and the employee involved For job enrichment to be effective, employees must be in favor of and involved with the change Managers should be aware that some employees prefer to seek challenges outside the workplace and should not attempt to use job enrichment to motive these employees In situations where job enrichment is appropriate, there are some relatively simple ways in which it can be applied Form a work group and allow employees to work together Make employees responsible for their “piece of pie” If possible, let the employees complete the job from beginning to end In hospitality organization, this means sth as simple as allowing an employee to serve the needs of the customer from the beginning to the end of the transaction Give employees the right to organize their work day Delegate jobs with more variety and responsibility Job Redesign Job redesign is essentially the idea of “doing it better by doing it differently.” Any of the following three combinations of individuals and techniques can be used to improve the design of a job: Experts can use time and motion studies to determine the way the job should be done 2 Managers, who supervise the job, can suggest improvements based on observed shortcomings in the current job procedures Employees, who are the most knowledgeable about their jobs, can devise new and better ways to carry out their work A Reward System – The Scanlon Plan This an incentive scheme named for its creator, Joseph Scanlon Basically, the Scanlon plan is a gain-sharing plan that works on the premise that employees have the best and most workable suggestions for the company The company motivates employees to contribute ideas by sharing with them the savings or earnings generated by their suggestions Because the money is paid directly to the employees and because the reward is perceived to be fair and equitable, the Scanlon plan works very well so long as employees are motivated at least in part by the potential for financial gain The organization benefited not only by suggestions to increase productivity, but also by increased efficiency, increased participative management, better relations between employees and management, and a greater willingness to accept change within the organization 6.1.4 General Guidelines for applying Motivation Theory Applying motivation theory well requires integrating individual, group, and organizational needs, wants, and objectives The following are some guidelines that may be helpful in achieving a balance among these things: Determine the needs of individual employees and work to ensure that those needs are met Establish motivation programs that are suitable for motivating all employees Review, on an ongoing basis, the effectiveness of the motivational programs employed Recognize that factors such as organizational culture and climate, group interaction and group leadership, as well as the individuality of employees, all need to be examined and considered when designing and implementing motivational initiatives within a company Ensure that employees are capable of performing at the expected level This may mean that employees should receive more training or that the organization should improve its selection process so that it hires more competent individuals Ensure that performance requirements and the reward system are clearly communicated to all employees in the organization Remember that most employees will engage in behaviors for which they are rewarded Make sure then that employees are rewarded for doing things that contribute to the overall performance of the organization 6.2 Training 6.2.1 Definition Training is a systematic process through which an organization’s human resource gain knowledge and develop skills by instruction and practical activities that result in improved corporate performance Training, Development, Education If one wishes to make a distinction between training and development, it would be that training is directed at helping employees perform better on their current jobs, whereas development represents a future-oriented investment in employees Many discussions of training emphasize a difference between training and education Training programs are considered to be designed to limit possible employee responses to those behaviors preferred by an employer (专专培专) Education is considered a means by which the range of possible employee responses is increased rather than reduced Education represents a broadening of the individual so that he or she may be prepared to assess a variety of situations and select the most appropriate response Although many unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled positions primarily require training, supervisory and management positions require elements of education Recently there has been a blurring of the distinction between training and education Training programs have sought to broaden and develop the individual through education For instance, employees in the service industries may be required to make independent decisions regarding their work and their relationships with clients Hence, organizations should consider elements of both education and training when planning their training programs 6.2.2 The Training Process Figure 6-2 presents important steps in the training process ⅠAssess Objectives & Training Needs An organization must first assess its objectives: what business are we in? What product or service we wish to provide to customers? At what level of quality we wish to provide this product or service? Once an organization has answered these and similar questions, an assessment of human resource requirements should be undertaken Can our human resource provide the skills, knowledge, abilities, and other personal attributes that are necessary? To the extent that they may lack these attributes, training may be required The assessment of training needs is perhaps the most important step in the process Use a restaurant as an example, table 3-3 shows skills, knowledge, and attitudes need to be used in planning menus for special occasions Table 6-3 Planning Menus for Special Occasions Task elements Conferring with organizer Assessing the circumstances, situation, and occasion Assessing the potential of the kitchen Taking account of seasonal variations Considering the suitability of different menu items Suggesting a range of prices Suggesting appropriate menus/beverages Finalizing the organizer’s requirements Obtaining agreement Skills, knowledge, and attitudes Ability to: Comprehend, read, write, calculate, and communicate Use price lists Suggest dishes, wines, beverages suitable for various occasions Liaise with kitchen staff Plan menus Knowledge of: Dishes available in the establishment Suitability of various dishes Foods in season Gastronomic rules when planning a menu Wines and beverages available and their suitability Planning for various types of special occasions Types of meals suitable for special occasions Prices Establishment’s marketing policy Legal aspects Attitudes: Salesmanship Courtesy Imagination Ⅱ Select Trainees and Training Goals After needs have been assessed, trainees must be selected and training goals established Trainees should be selected with care, ensuring that they and the organization will benefit from their inclusion in the training program The training goals should ensure that the assessed needs will be served Ⅲ Select Training methods and Trainers Once training goals have been established, it is necessary to determine how to conduct the training This includes the selection of training techniques and trainers for the program Additionally, employees’ ability should be considered when designing the training program Great care must be exercised in choosing effective instructors or trainers Personal characteristics (such as the ability to speak well, to write convincingly, to organize the work of others, to be inventive, and to inspire others to greater achievements) are important factors in the selection f trainers HR specialists or hired outside consultants who report to the HR manager or other top managers are also used to perform a needs analysis and to conduct the training Although much formal training is performed by professional trainers, often operating supervisors may be the best trainers technically, especially if the training manager helps them prepare the material Using operating managers as trainers overcomes the frequent criticism that “training is OK in the classroom, but it won’t work on the shop floor or back on the job.” After that the program is run That includes selection of content and methods to be used and the actual training method In many situations a combination of instructional methods are used On-the-job training Probably the most widely used method of training is on the job training It is estimated that more than 60% of training occurs on the job The employees are placed in the real work situation and shown the job and the tricks of the trade by an experienced employee or the supervisor One approach to systematic on the job training is the job instruction training (JIT) system developed during World War Ⅱ In this system the trainers first train the supervisors, who in turn train the employees Case method One widespread technique is the case method, which uses a written description of a real decision-making situation in the organization or a situation that occurred in another organization Managers are asked to study the case to identify the problems, analyze the problems for their significance, propose solutions, choose the best solution, and implement it More learning takes place if there is interaction between the managers and the instructor Role-playing Role playing is a cross between the case method and an attitude development program Each person is assigned a role in a situation (such as a case) and asked to play the role and to react to other players’ role playing The success of this method depends on the ability of the players to play the assigned roles believably If done well, role playing can help a manager become more aware of and more sensitive to the feelings of others Although role playing is a cross between the two, comparison of the general forms of role playing and the case method suggests a few differences between them Case Study Role Playing Presents a problem analysis and discussion for Places the problem in a real-life situation Uses problems that have already occurred in the company or elsewhere Uses problems that are now current or are happening on the job Deals with problems in which participants themselves are involved Deals with attitudinal Emphasis Trains in emotional control Provides practice in interpersonal skills Deals involving with problems others Deals with emotional and attitudinal aspects in an intellectual frame of reference Emphasis is on using facts and making assumptions Trains in the exercise of judgments Provides practice in analysis of problems emotional is on and feelings In-Basket Technique Another method used to develop managerial decision-making abilities is the in-basket technique The participant is given materials (typically memos or descriptions of things to do) that include typical items from a specific manager’s mails, and a telephone list Important and pressing matters, such as complaints by customers and a demand for a report from a supervisor, are mixed in with routine business matters, such as a request to speak at a dinner or a decision on the date of the company picnic four weeks hence The trainee is analyzed and critique on the number of decisions made on the time allotted, the quality of the decisions, and the priorities chosen for making them In order to generate interest, the in-basket materials must be realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make decision on Management Games management games describe the operating characteristics of a company, industry, or enterprise These descriptions take the form of equations that are manipulated after decisions have been made Management games emphasize development of problem solving skills There are so many kinds of management games, such as computerized management game procedure, Looking Glass, Simmons Simulator, Financial Services Industry Behavior Modeling A development approach for improving interpersonal skills is behavior modeling, which is also called interaction management or imitating models The key to behavior modeling is learning through observation or imagination Thus modeling is a “vicarious process” that emphasizes observation There are steps in the process: Modeling of effective behavior – often by use of films Role playing Social reinforcement – trainees and trainers praise effective role playing Transfer of training to the job Outdoor Oriented Programs Cases, games, modeling, and role playing, are still popular, but an increasingly popular form of development is outdoor or real-life, actionoriented programs Leadership, teamwork, and risk-taking are top-priority items in the outdoor oriented programs Ⅳ Evaluation At the same time, the means to evaluate the program must be established The means selected for evaluation must be sensitive to the type of training conducted, the training techniques used, the training program goals and the initial training needs Cost-benefit analysis generally is more feasible for training and development than for many other HRM functions Cost are relatively easy to compute: they equal direct costs of training (trainer, materials, and lost productivity, if training is some on company time) plus indirect costs (a fair share of the administrative overhead of the HR department) The evaluation should be made by comparing the results (the benefits) with the objectives of the training and development program that were set in the assessment phase It is easier to evaluate the results of some programs (for example, typing) than others The criteria used to evaluate training depend on the objectives of the program and who sets the criteria: management, trainers, or the trainees Criteria for Evaluation There are three types of criteria for evaluating training: internal, external, and participants’ reaction Internal criteria are directly associated with the content of the program for example, whether the employee learned the facts of guidelines covered in the program External criteria are related mire to the ultimate purpose of the program for example, improving the effectiveness of the employee Possibly external criteria include job performance rating, the degree of learning transferred from training and development sessions to on-the-job situations, and increases in sales volume or decreases in turnover Participants’ reaction, or how the subjects feel about the benefits of a specific training or development experience, is commonly used as an internal criterion Most experts argue that it is more effective to use multiple criteria to evaluate training One view of a multiple-criterion evaluation system was developed by Kirkpatrick He suggests measuring the following: - Participants’ reaction – whether subjects like or dislike the program, the participant indicates his or her satisfaction with the program - Learning – the extent to which the subjects have assimilated the knowledge offered and skills practiced in the training program Dies the participant score higher on tests after the training or development than before? - Behavior – an external measure of changes or lack of changes in job behavior; the ratings a participant received in performance appraisal (comparison of “before” and “after” ratings) - Results – the effective of the program on organizational dimensions such as employee turnover, productivity, volume of sales, or error-free letters typed At present, many firms assess tractions, but very few measure behavioral results A Matrix Guide for Evaluation One useful device for addressing the issue of evaluation is a systematic evaluation matrix Table 3-4 presets such a matrix, which could be used as a guideline for evaluating any of the programs and techniques covered in this chapter Table 6-4 the matrix for evaluation Relevant issues to evaluate What to measure What to examine for answers How to collect data Participants’ attitudes or skills before and after (even during) training or development sessions Comments Interviews, questionnaires, records, observations Participants’ on-thejob performance, behavior, and style Subordinates’ performance, attitudes, and style Foxed and variable costs of conducting training or development Cost of trainers, participants’ time, travel expenses, consultants’ fee, training aids, rent, utilities Are the participants learning, changing attitudes, or improving skills Are the training or development materials used in the job? What are the costs of training and development programs and techniques? How long does the training or development have an effect on participants? Participants’ on-thejob performance, behavior, and style over an extended period of time Method of participation Co-workers Supervisors Subordinates’ performance, attitudes, and style records, Interviews, questionnaires, critical incidents observations budget records records, Interviews, questionnaires, critical incidents observations (collect a number of times) Ⅴ Monitoring As training is being conducted, provision must be made for ensuring that the program is proceed as planned Without monitoring the training process, it is possible that a welldesigned training program may be conducted improperly or otherwise fail to accomplish its goals In sum, formal training and development have been shown to be more effective than informal or no training and development 6.3 Management Development Organizations and their environments are dynamic and constantly changing New technologies are developed, competitors enter and leave markets, inflation increases, and productivity fluctuates These are the kinds of changes that managers face It is an area of study directed toward using behavioral science knowledge to deal with problems of change Management development should be planned, since it requires systematic diagnosis, development of a program, and the mobilization of resources It involves either the entire system or an entire unit It must have top-management commitment if it is to be a success Figure 6-2 lists a variety of development approaches that are available to managers There is no one best approach The crucial point to consider is what the diagnosis shows [...]... through which an organization’s human resource gain knowledge and develop skills by instruction and practical activities that result in improved corporate performance Training, Development, Education If one wishes to make a distinction between training and development, it would be that training is directed at helping employees perform better on their current jobs, whereas development represents a future-oriented... must be sensitive to the type of training conducted, the training techniques used, the training program goals and the initial training needs Cost-benefit analysis generally is more feasible for training and development than for many other HRM functions Cost are relatively easy to compute: they equal direct costs of training (trainer, materials, and lost productivity, if training is some on company time)... performance, attitudes, and style Foxed and variable costs of conducting training or development Cost of trainers, participants’ time, travel expenses, consultants’ fee, training aids, rent, utilities Are the participants learning, changing attitudes, or improving skills 2 Are the training or development materials used in the job? 3 What are the costs of training and development programs and techniques? 4... Imagination Ⅱ Select Trainees and Training Goals After needs have been assessed, trainees must be selected and training goals established Trainees should be selected with care, ensuring that they and the organization will benefit from their inclusion in the training program The training goals should ensure that the assessed needs will be served Ⅲ Select Training methods and Trainers Once training goals have... includes selection of content and methods to be used and the actual training method In many situations a combination of instructional methods are used On-the-job training Probably the most widely used method of training is on the job training It is estimated that more than 60 % of training occurs on the job The employees are placed in the real work situation and shown the job and the tricks of the trade... Monitoring As training is being conducted, provision must be made for ensuring that the program is proceed as planned Without monitoring the training process, it is possible that a welldesigned training program may be conducted improperly or otherwise fail to accomplish its goals In sum, formal training and development have been shown to be more effective than informal or no training and development 6. 3 Management... industries may be required to make independent decisions regarding their work and their relationships with clients Hence, organizations should consider elements of both education and training when planning their training programs 6. 2.2 The Training Process Figure 6- 2 presents important steps in the training process ⅠAssess Objectives & Training Needs An organization must first assess its objectives: what business... or service? Once an organization has answered these and similar questions, an assessment of human resource requirements should be undertaken Can our human resource provide the skills, knowledge, abilities, and other personal attributes that are necessary? To the extent that they may lack these attributes, training may be required The assessment of training needs is perhaps the most important step in... prepared to assess a variety of situations and select the most appropriate response Although many unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled positions primarily require training, supervisory and management positions require elements of education Recently there has been a blurring of the distinction between training and education Training programs have sought to broaden and develop the individual through education... learning transferred from training and development sessions to on-the-job situations, and increases in sales volume or decreases in turnover Participants’ reaction, or how the subjects feel about the benefits of a specific training or development experience, is commonly used as an internal criterion Most experts argue that it is more effective to use multiple criteria to evaluate training One view of a ... formal training and development have been shown to be more effective than informal or no training and development 6. 3 Management Development Organizations and their environments are dynamic and. .. type of training conducted, the training techniques used, the training program goals and the initial training needs Cost-benefit analysis generally is more feasible for training and development. .. improving skills Are the training or development materials used in the job? What are the costs of training and development programs and techniques? How long does the training or development have an