i INTENTION TO AVOID SMOKING OF VIETNAMESE ADOLECENT In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION In Business By Ms.: Le Thi Thuy ID: MBA 05044 International University - Vietnam National University HCMC January 2014 ii INTENTION TO AVOID SMOKING OF VIETNAMESE ADOLECENT In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION In Business By Ms.: Le Thi Thuy ID: MBA 05044 International University - Vietnam National University HCMC January 2014 Under the guidance and approval of the committee, and approved by all its members, this thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree. Approved: ---------------------------------------------Chairperson ---------------------------------------------Committee member ---------------------------------------------Committee member --------------------------------------------Committee member --------------------------------------------Committee member --------------------------------------------Committee member iii Acknowledgement My dissertation would have not been completed without the enthusiastic support and assistance from many people. This period of time should be the most difficult time in my life because of many problems happening in my family. Fortunately I have received the support and encouraging from many people to overcome the problem. On the first line, from the bottom of my heart, I would like to express my grateful thanks to my advisor – Dr. Nguyen Thi Quynh Mai for all her enthusiastic instruction, consultancy and especially her inspiring and encouraging me during the time for my final thesis. She has created the most suitable condition for me and given me the most useful advice to contribute to my thesis as well as my private difficulties. I would like to send my thanks to International University – National University as a whole, especially the School of Business where have spent almost two years studying this MBA program from which I have accumulated a lot of knowledge as well as many skills that I had not ever possessed before. During this time, I have also received the useful assistance and prompt feedback from teaching staff and officers as well. Moreover, I have made friends with many others student not only in my class but also senior and junior intakes. I would like to express my special thanks to my friends, especially Mr. Ngo Quang Long, Ms. Tran Hoang Cam Tu who already spent their valuable time to help me finish my survey soonest. Finally, I would like to send my special thanks to my sweet family who have always encouraged and facilitated me in further study. They have already been beside me and given me the big motivation to successfully complete my MBA program in IU – VNU. iv Plagiarism Statements I would like to declare that, apart from the acknowledged references, this thesis either does not use language, ideas, or other original material from anyone; or has not been previously submitted to any other educational and research programs or institutions. I fully understand that any writings in this thesis contradicted to the above statement will automatically lead to the rejection from the MBA program at the International University Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City. v Copyright Statement This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the author’s prior consent. © Lê Thị Thủy / MBA05044 / 2012 -2014 vi Table of content Chapter 1 – Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background Of The Study ................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Smoking In Viet Nam ........................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Rationale of study ................................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Main Research Question And Hypothesis............................................................................ 5 1.4.1 Research question............................................................................................ 5 1.4.2 Research hypothesis......................................................................................... 5 1.5 Objectives Of The Study....................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Scope And Limitations ......................................................................................................... 5 1.7 Significance And Implications ............................................................................................. 6 Chapter 2 – Literature review ............................................................................................ 7 2.1 Concept Of Behavioral Intention......................................................................................... 7 2.2 The Predictive Theories And Theory Of Planned Behavior (TPB) .................................. 9 2.2.1 Overall View Of Theory Of Planned Behavior................................................ 9 2.2.2 The TPB And Smoking – A Review Of Previous Researches ........................ 10 2.2.3 Components Of Theory Of Planned Behavior .............................................. 12 2.2.3.1 Attitude (towards the behavior) ............................................................................... 12 2.2.3.2 Subjective Norms (about the behavior) .................................................................... 12 2.2.3.3 Perceived behavioral control (of the behavior) ....................................................... 13 2.2.3.4 Behavioral intention and behavior........................................................................... 14 2.2.4 Conceptual framework .................................................................................. 14 Chapter 3 – Research Methodologies ............................................................................... 16 3.1 Research Approach ............................................................................................................. 16 3.2 Research Process ................................................................................................................. 17 3.3 Data Collection Method ...................................................................................................... 19 3.3.1 Target Population ......................................................................................... 19 3.3.2 Sample Size ................................................................................................... 19 3.3.3 Sampling Method And Data Collection......................................................... 20 3.3.4 Research Instrument And Questionnaire Design.......................................... 21 3.3.5 Data Analysis. ............................................................................................... 23 Chapter 4 – Data Analysis And Research Results ........................................................... 25 4.1 Sample Demographics ........................................................................................................ 25 vii 4.2 Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................................................... 30 4.2.1 Attitude towards smoking .............................................................................. 30 4.2.2 Subjective Norms........................................................................................... 31 4.2.3 Perceived Behavioral Control ........................................................................ 32 4.2.4 Intention to avoid smoking ............................................................................ 32 4.2.5 Comparison among different demographics ................................................. 33 4.2.5.1 The difference between male and female’s attitude towards smoking ..................... 33 4.2.5.2 people The difference between male and female’s evaluation towards effects from other …………………………………………………………………………………….................35 4.2.5.3 The difference between male and female’s control towards smoking ...................... 35 4.2.5.4 The difference between male and female’s intention to avoid smoking ................... 36 4.3 Reliability statistics ............................................................................................................. 36 4.4 Validity Test.......................................................................................................................... 37 4.5 Model revision ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.6 Hypothesis Revision ............................................................................................................ 40 4.7 Pearson correlation test ...................................................................................................... 40 4.8 Regression analysis ............................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 5 – Conclusion And Recommendation ............................................................... 46 5.1 Summary And Discussion Of Research Findings ............................................................ 46 5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 48 5.3 Limitations and recommendations for further researches.............................................. 49 viii List of Tables Table 1: Constructs and indicators of behavior .................................................................... 22 Table 2: The profile of Respondents (N=330)...................................................................... 26 Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of Attitude towards smoking ................................................ 30 Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of Subjective Norms ............................................................ 31 Table 5: Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Behavioral Control .......................................... 32 Table 6: Descriptive Statistics of Intention to avoid smoking .............................................. 33 Table 7: The difference between male and female’s attitude towards smoking .................... 34 Table 8: The difference between male and female’s evaluation towards effects from other people ................................................................................................................................. 35 Table 9: The difference between male and female’s control towards smoking ..................... 35 Table 10: The difference between male and female’s intention to avoid smoking ................ 36 Table 11: Reliability of variables......................................................................................... 37 Table 12: Rotated Component Matrix(a) ............................................................................. 38 Table 13: Reliability of variables after rotation .................................................................... 39 Table 14: Pearson correlation coefficient scale .................................................................... 41 Table 15: Correlation Coefficients of Variables................................................................... 41 Table 16: Regression for Intention to avoid smoking model ................................................ 42 ix List of Figures Figure 1: The increasing rate of global Cigarette Consumption in one century....................... 2 Figure 2: The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991).................................................... 14 Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of factors influence to intention to avoid smoking ........... 15 Figure 4: Research Process .................................................................................................. 17 Figure 5: Percentages of Gender .......................................................................................... 27 Figure 6: Percentages of Income ......................................................................................... 28 Figure 7: Educational level .................................................................................................. 28 Figure 8: Smoking status ..................................................................................................... 29 Figure 9: Relationship between educational level and occupation ........................................ 29 Figure 10: Revised conceptual model .................................................................................. 40 Figure 11: Final research model .......................................................................................... 45 x Abstract The research of “Intention to avoid smoking of Vietnamese adolescent” was conducted under circumstance that smoking situation has been becoming alarmingly, especially in recent years in Viet Nam. It has a lot of bad effects for people’s health and the question of decreasing smoking is one of the most social and difficult question currently. However, the trend of consumption is changing day by day with the effects of actions from organizations and people in society. In that general trend, the perception of young people on smoking is also changing. This study is conducted to test the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict Vietnamese adolescent’s intention to avoid smoking and the subsequent behavior. A prospective sample of 330 adolescents participated in the study. In the conceptual framework model, it was hypothesis that there were three determinants to the effectiveness of behavioral intention including attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. The target population for this study was Vietnamese adolescent from 15 to 35 years old in Ho Chi Minh City coming from three group of occupation including students, white-collar workers and bluecollar workers. Researcher applied quantitative approach as the major method to conduct the study with main statistic technique consisting factor analysis and multiple regression. Through the study, the difference among different demographics is also presented. Besides, Intention to avoid smoking was directly influenced by perceived benefit towards smoking, perceived harmfulness towards smoking, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. The finding from the study suggested that in order to reduce smoking in society, it is necessary to have the effects of parents, teacher and need more propaganda campaigns about the harmfulness of smoking. Keywords: TPB, Attitude towards behavior, Subjective norms, Perceived behavior control, Behavioral Intention. xi 1 Chapter 1 – Introduction The aim of this chapter is to briefly introduce the research background as well as the basis of selecting the field of research. It is then followed with the discussion of the research’s scope, limitations and its significance and implications. After all, the research structure is also mentioned to make the research easier to follow. 1.1 Background Of The Study Smoking has been considering as one of the most serious global problem for a long time, especially in the current trend of increasing number of smoking people into the adolescent. Smoking numbers have gone up with burning results in the last ten years. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2013), globally the population covered by at least one effective tobacco control measure has more than doubled from 1 billion to 2.3 billion. This comprises more than a third of the world’s population. Smoking is one of the main risk factors for a number of chronic diseases, including cancer, lung diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. However, smoking is still common throughout the world. WHO also has given number that tobacco kills up to half of its users and it kills nearly 6 million people each year. More than five million of those deaths are the results of direct tobacco use while more than 600,000 are the result of non-smokers being exposed to second-hand smoke. If the urgent action is not taken, the annual death toll could rise to more than eight million by 2030. Nearly 80% of the world's one billion smokers live in low- and middle-income countries. Consumption of tobacco products is increasing globally, though it is decreasing in some high-income and upper middle-income countries. A number of countries have legislation restricting tobacco advertising, and regulating who can buy and use tobacco 2 products, and where people can smoke. However, the number of smoking people is still increasing day by day and it has become the problem of society and takes a lot of engineer from many organizations. Figure 1: The increasing rate of global Cigarette Consumption in one century (Source: http://tobaccoatlas.org/products/cigarette_consumption/fig_b/) 1.2 Smoking In Viet Nam In Vietnam, smoking situation has been becoming alarmingly, especially in recent years. Vietnam is among 15 leading countries of using tobacco. The rate of tobacco using currently (estimating in population from 15 years old and over) is 23%, equal to 15.3 million people. Among adults, the percentage of smokers was 47.4% in men and 1.4% in women. The highest rate group of smoking rate is ranged in working age among 25 and 50 years old and remarkably the age range of smoking is younger than that in the past because it is so easy to access tobacco. Not only people who smoke directly suffer the disease but also the nonsmokers also are exposed to second-hand smoke. The number second-hand smoke is also very high in Vietnam. The incidence of exposure to tobacco smoke at home is 67.6% and in the workplace is 49.0%. In particular, the rate of exposure to tobacco smoke at home is nearly 3 70% in women and 50% in children. Passive cigarette smoke is one of the many factors causing heart disease, lung cancer; it impairs respiratory function and affects generative function in both men and women. It increases the risk of heart disease to 25-30%, lung disease to 25% and increase the risk of stroke up to 82% (WHO, 2013). The World Health Organization estimates that each year Vietnam has about 40,000 people die of diseases related to tobacco and if we do not have timely solution, this figure will rise to 70,000 by 2030. This number is almost higher 4 times than the number of deaths from road traffic accidents in our country each year. These studying data already has affected to consumer’s trend and intention to avoid smoking day by day. 1.3 Rationale of study The bad effects of smoking for people’s health and the social environment are very clear and the information about this is communicated widely. According to the WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2013, 2.3 billion is the number of people worldwide covered by at least one life-saving measure to limit tobacco use has more than doubled in the last five years. The number of people covered by bans on tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship, the focus of this year’s report, increased by almost 400 million people residing mainly in low- and middle-income countries (WHO, 2013). The ratio of Vietnamese adolescent has also increased recent time and the effect has caused the government much difficulty to solve problem. Furthermore, the Report shows that 3 billion people are now covered by national antitobacco campaigns. As a result, hundreds of millions of nonsmokers are less likely to start. However, the Report notes, to achieve the globally agreed target of a 30% reduction of tobacco use by 2025, more countries have to implement comprehensive tobacco control programs (WHO, 2013). 4 It is very clear that the trend of consumption is changing day by day if there are the actions of organizations, people and when the perception of people is affected. In that general trend, the perception of young people on smoking is also changing. According to the research of North West Regional Youth Work Unit, young people are affected by the issue of tobacco in the media and tobacco marketing through packaging. It is of tremendous use to Tobacco Free Futures and frames young people’s views in a way that is not influenced by prior knowledge of the evidence. The findings are valuable in understanding what young people believe about these issues. They also serve to demonstrate that young people have little conscious awareness of the significant impact of branding and marketing on human behavior, which is well established in the literature (North West Regional Youth Work Unit, 2012). There are a lot of factors influencing perception of people including Social and Environmental factors (accessibility of tobacco products, pricing, advertising and promotion, parental hostility, interaction of social influences…), Personal Characteristics, Expectations of Personal Effects of Smoking and Biological Factors (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US); 2001 Mar.). About smoking behavior, in many past researches, the authors have shown that smoking behavior related on social interaction (Panu Poutvaara & Lars-H.R .Siemers, 2007); cigarette taxes (Mir M. Ali, 2012), education (Pierre Koning, Dinand Webbink and Nicholas G. Martin, 2010). According to Ajzen, the factors influence consumer’s behavioral intention including Attitude, Subjective norm and Perceived behavioral control. This will lead to the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Understanding the factors influencing the consumer’s behavior and perception will help us to explore how young people think about smoking and investigate how conceptions of addiction may influence intentions to smoke cigarettes. It also aims to give recommendations 5 for organizations, government offices and producers of smoking to apply for real life. This is the goal that I need to archive in this research. 1.4 Main Research Question And Hypothesis 1.4.1 Research question From the rationale of the research, these questions are raised: “What are factors influencing Vietnamese adolescent’s intention to avoid smoking and what factor influences most to smoking?” and “How do those factors impact on the intention to avoid smoking?” The ultimate question “How do government officers use these factors to contribute to their campaigns of smoking invention and how do producers use them to have right strategy on their business?” 1.4.2 Research hypothesis The hypothesis research is conducted as below: H1: Attitude towards smoking positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H2: Subjective norms positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H3: Perceived behavioral control positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking 1.5 Objectives Of The Study This research is conducted to define the factors influence smoking behavioral intention of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to 35 years old. Specifically, the research will focus on three main objectives:  To evaluate the factors influence the intention to avoid smoking of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to 35 years old and the factor most influences in smoking behavioral intention;  To define how the factors impact on the intention to avoid smoking;  To give the recommendations for the families, young people, policy government makers and tobacco producers. 1.6 Scope And Limitations 6 This research is conducted on people in Ho Chi Minh City within 15 to 35 years including men and women from all occupations. The samples will include students, whitecollar workers and blue-collar workers. Research subjects cover people usually smoke every day, people sometimes smoke and also people have never smoked until now. The limitation of this research is that the samples are just people from 15 to 35 years old living in Ho Chi Minh City, it is not large enough to generate an overall picture which can be representative for all smoking people in Vietnam. Moreover, the perceptions of these respondents are much diversified so the result of the research may be applied to just a certain range of people only. 1.7 Significance And Implications This research will contribute to understand reasons and factors lead people to the intention to avoid smoking or not. Understanding the reasons and factors of smoking intention will contribute to give recommendations for the families and young people to find the right way to influence others in stopping smoking cigarette. More important significance of this research is that it will help organizations and government offices to have more suggestion as well as evidence to design and implement the method to reduce the smoking rate in our society. In business, it will give recommendations for producers of cigarette to find the best way to develop their business following the way of decreasing the bad effects to social living. Last one is that this research will contribute to explain and development of the theory. 7 Chapter 2 – Literature review The core function of this chapter is the revision of the previous researches in association with this study’s problems. For the purpose of find the factors that influences to smoking behavioral intention, the literature on Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was reviewed. As the result, a comprehensive theoretical model of the characteristics of Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) success was tested to examine the relationship among the factors of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control and smoking behavioral intention. 2.1 Concept Of Behavioral Intention Behavioral intention was first found by Fishbein and Ajzen’s in 1975 that were described to “…capture the motivational factors that influence a behavior”. It is defined as an action probability that someone will be able to do in a given behavior. It can measure how much effort people are willing to attempt in order to implement the behavior. In Theory of Planned Behavior, behavioral intention is the closest predictor of behavior (Ajzen, 1991). “Behavioral intention is an indication of an individual's readiness to perform a given behavior. It is assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b)”. It is based on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior. According to Armitage & Conner, 2001, behavioral intention is behavior-specific and designed and structured by direct questions such as "I intend to do something" with Likert scale response choices to measure the strength of intention. Intention is displayed in in measurement by such as “I plan to do something”, “I will to to something”, “I expect to do something” or other similar concepts. 8 In many projects that the researches implemented to get the meaningful goal related in better health for people, they already found that behavioral intention has high predictive validity in relation to a real behavior (Committee on Communication for Behavior Change in the 21st Century: Improving the Health of Diverse Populations, 2002). According to the study of Armitage & Conner, 2001; Sheeran & Orbell, 1998; Sheppard, Jon, & Warshaw, 1988; Van den Putte, 1991, from 18% to 38% in behavior were illustrated by behavioral intention. Two main theories of behavioral intention that are most used include the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991). In these models, the factor of behavior intention can be developed in different ways such as how, when, how many, where or other specifics. For example “I plan to smoke in next month/ 3 times per day/ in my house”. According to Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997; Milne, Orbell, & Sheeran, 2002, “The former has been classified a goal intention and the latter an implementation intention”. Besides above expressions of behavioral intention, the different terms are also used by some other authors. The intention was used as a plan of behavior in response to specific situations by Gollwitzer (1997). Example is a clause “If I run into my old drinking buddies, I'll tell them I have to be somewhere and then call my AA sponsor”. The main objective of the study of consumer behavior is to provide marketers the knowledge and skills that are necessary to implement the analysis about customers to enhance the understanding about markets and develop, open and improve the sales. However, on this research, cigarette is a sensitive product in society with many opposite ideas that we should stop or continue to produce, so the purposes also have some differences. Finding the factors influencing the behavioral intention will help researchers to obtain some specific 9 purposes that are not for marketing strategy of cigarette development but some other social objectives. 2.2 The Predictive Theories And Theory Of Planned Behavior (TPB) In 1969, Wicker's already had review of research on the attitude-behavior relationship and he concluded that the given behavior was probably determined by attitudes. In recent years, many studies “has been developing integrated models, including additional predictors of behavior such as social norms or intentions” (Olson & Zanna, 1993). These studies concentrate to the basic factors that decide the individual’s motivation to perform or not perform the given behavior, so these models has been understood and applied such as the motivational models (cf. Armitage & Conner, 2000). Among them, the most well-known motivational models include the Health Belief Model (HBM; Janz & Becker, 1984), Protection Motivation Theory (PMT; Rogers, 1983), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT; 1986), the Theories of Reasoned Action (TRA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), and Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985, 1988; 1991). The TPB is essentially an extension of the TRA. TPB model is one of the most predictive persuasion theories and it was used in many researches for a long time. 2.2.1 Overall View Of Theory Of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was introduced on the article “From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior” by Icek Ajzen in 1985. This theory was developed from Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) that was suggested in 1975 by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen. Ajzen and Fishbein had already built Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) after trying to estimate the difference between the attitude and behavior. The TRA was related to voluntary behavior. However, the reality that many of behaviors were not voluntary but were controlled and affected by outside factors lead the new addition with the new component of perceived behavioral control. The new addition that was called Theory of 10 Planned Behavior (TPB) predicts the intended behavior because the behavior can be intended and planned. According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivations) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies (Sheppard, B.H.; Hartwick, J.& Warshaw, P.R. 1988). 2.2.2 The TPB And Smoking – A Review Of Previous Researches The TPB model has been applied to several of studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. Previous researches have shown that the TPB is quite successful in predicting a large number of behaviors relating to the health. For example, in the report of Armitage and Conner (2001) the analysis represented that “the model accounted for 39% and 27% of the variance in intentions and behavior” in which the attitude factor was the strongest predictor of intention (cf. Armitage & Conner, 2001). Until now, it have been estimated about more than 1200 researches in academic databases including Communication & Mass Media Complete, Academic Search Premier, PsycARTICLES, Business Source Premier, PsycINFO, and PsycCRITIQUES. Especially, some recent studies have found that the TPB would better help to predict health-related behavioral intention than the TRA (Ajzen, 1988) (e.g., Albarracin, Fishbein, Johnson, & Muellerieile, 2001; Sheeran & Taylor, 1999, leisure (e.g., Ajzen & Driver, 1992), exercise (e.g., Nguyen, Potvin, & Otis, 1997), and diet (e.g., Conner, Kirk, Cade, & Barrett, 2003). The TPB model has been also applied to environmental psychology area. In the research in 2010, Koger and Winter already presented that the actions that are friendly with 11 environment would contain a positive normative belief. This shows that “sustainable behaviors are widely promoted as positive behaviors”. However, the behavioral intentions do not always lead to the behavior; it can be controlled by the belief or other attitude of someone. Therefore, the theory of planned behavior model is a very powerful and predictive model for explaining the behavior of human. This explains the reason why this model has been applied much in the studies of health and nutrition fields. In a recent research, Teemu, Erno and Marco (2011) tested the Theory of Planned Behavior in the context of entrepreneurship. The result from their test concluded that “positive entrepreneurial intentions lead to startup behavior”. This finding supports for the intention-behavior link. The TPB has also been used to review the behavior in the context of smoking in the researches of many authors such as Babrow, Black & Tiffany, 1990; Bennett & Clatworthy, 1999; Borland, Owen, Hill & Schofield, 1991; Conner et al., in press; DeVries, Backbier, Kok & Dijkstra, 1995; Godin, Valois, Lepage, & Desharnais, 1992; Hanson, 1997; Hanson, 1999; Higgins & Conner, 2003; Hill, Boudreau & Amyot, 1999; Hill, Boudreau, Amyot, Johnston et al., 2004; McMillan, Higgins & Conner, 2005; Norman et al., 1999; Rise, Kovac & Kraft, 2005; Willemsen et al., 1996. The model that was applied in this research had been conducted and developed from some previous researches of tobacco using in many nations such as “Using the theory of planned behavior to predict tobacco and alcohol use in South African students” (Steingold, 2008); “Smoking or not smoking: How well does the theory of planned behavior predict intention and behavior?” (Inger Synnove Moan, 2005); “The Theory of Planned Behavior and Smoking Cessation” (Paul Norman, Mark Conner, Russell Bell, 1999); “Theory of planned behavior and smoking: meta-analysis and SEM model” (Topa and Moriano, 2010) and so on. 12 In this study, theory of planed behavior is applied to define the factors influence smoking intention. 2.2.3 Components Of Theory Of Planned Behavior 2.2.3.1 Attitude (towards the behavior) According to Ajzen, “attitude towards the behavior is an individual's positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior”. According to Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, this component describes the level of favor or disfavor estimation of someone toward the given behavior. It is decided by the total of factors including the beliefs connecting the behavior to variety outcomes and other attributes. The attitude of an individual “exists in the form of evaluation covering all types and categories of evaluation, both overt and covert, or in cognitive, affective and conative forms” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Shook & Bratianu (2010) stated that each form would shape the individual attitude based on beliefs of the individual in the possible outcomes. The more pleasurable the possibility is, the higher the intention to implement the behavior will be, and the less pleasurable the outcome possibility is, the lower the intention to carry out the behavior will be. It means that someone will intent to do the certain behavior once they evaluate this bring the advantages or it positively (Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M., 1988). 2.2.3.2 Subjective Norms (about the behavior) Subjective norm is an individual's perception about the particular behavior, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers) (Amjad, N. & Wood, A.M. 2009). According to Ajzen, subjective norms include the estimations of individual under the pressure of society to carry out or not the given behavior. This component is evaluated based on two interaction elements of “beliefs about how other people, who may be in some way important to the person, would like them to behave 13 (normative beliefs), and the positive or negative judgments about each belief (outcome evaluations)” (Francis et al., 2004). There are some statements about the effect of Subjective norms to behavioral intention. People who believe certain referents think they should perform a behavior and are motivated to meet the expectations of referents will have a positive subjective norm. And, vice versa those who believe the referents think they should not perform the behavior (smoke in public) will have a negative subjective norm (Cowdery and Karshin, 2009). According to Ajzen, I. and & Fishbein, M., (1988), an individual will intend to perform a certain behavior when he/she perceives that important others think he/she should. Important others might be a person’s, spouse, close friends, physician, etc. 2.2.3.3 Perceived behavioral control (of the behavior) Perceived behavioral control is “an individual's perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior” (Ajzen, 1991). It is determined by the summary of all accessible control beliefs. In the other words, the degree of intention to perform a behavior of interest depends on his or her control ability. This component also relates to control beliefs which are the beliefs of someone about the existence of the factors causing the assistant or prevention to the particular intention (Ajzen, 2001). The concept of perceived behavioral control is also related to self-efficacy. According to Ajzen, I. and & Fishbein, M., (1988), when individual think and believe that they do not have any opportunities and foundation to perform an intention, they will not likely to have a strong intention even in case that she or he keep the positive attitude toward the behavior and other important people will approve that behavior. Although they have enough positive attitudes and subjective norm, it still needs another factor of Perceived behavioral control to lead the behavioral intention. The Perceived behavioral control can have positive or negative, direct or indirect effect to behavior through behavioral intention. The 14 more controllability is, the weaker the intention to do the behavior will be and vice versa, the less controllability is, the stronger the intention to do the behavior. 2.2.3.4 Behavioral intention and behavior Behavioral intention is defined as the readiness of someone to perform a particular behavior. Behavioral intention is considered as the immediate predecessor of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b). It is determined by the attitude towards the behavior, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Each component has different predictive influence for the importance in relation to the given behavior. Behavior is the response of an individual in a particular situation with respect to a given purpose. Behavior is a range of many actions or styles carried out by individual, organizations in a given environment including systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. Ajzen said that “A behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is expected to moderate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong”. 2.2.4 Conceptual framework The original model of Ajzen includes five components as below: Figure 2: The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) 15 After examining of the models presented previously, together with other studies related to determining factors for behavior of Sentosa and Mat, 2012; Ingram et al., 2000, the components have been changed to be more suitable with the direction of research and the theoretical framework applied in this study is displayed as following: Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of factors influence to intention to avoid smoking With conceptual framework, we have the research hypothesis as following: H1: Attitude towards smoking positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H2: Subjective norms positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H3: Perceived behavioral control positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking 16 Chapter 3 – Research Methodologies This chapter 3 provided the information about the overview of method to conduct the study like research instrument to data collection. Besides, the data analysis techniques were clearly described including descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression and path analysis. Last but not least, it gives the full result of reliability test, validity test and factor analysis for all the variables in the model. 3.1 Research Approach In this study, researcher applied the mixed-method but the quantitative method is focused and qualitative method just support for quantitative method. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of smoking behavior and the reasons cause smoking behavior. Basing on the detailed factors relating to smoking behavior from qualitative, the researcher built the quantitative questions. Several definitions for mixed methods have emerged over the years that incorporate various elements of methods, research processes, philosophy, and research design. An early definition of mixed methods came from writers in the field of evaluation. Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989) emphasized the mixing of methods and the disentanglement of methods and philosophy (i.e., paradigms). Mixed method community which has “gone through a relatively rapid growth spurt…it has acquired a formal methodology that did not exist before and is subscribed to by an emerging community of practitioners and methodologists across the disciplines. In the process of developing a distinct identity, as compared with other major research communities of researchers in the social and human sciences, mixed methods have been adopted as the de facto third alternative or “third methodological movement” (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010b) 17 Mixed methods is a “research in which the investigator collects, analyses, mixes, and draws inferences from both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or a program of inquiry”. A more comprehensive definition is provided by Creswell and Plano Clark (in 2007) who define mixed methods as follows: Mixed methods research is a research design with philosophical assumptions as well as methods of inquiry. As a methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or series of studies. Its central premise is that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of research problems that either approach alone (Journal of Mixed Methods, 2006). In this study, researcher defined mixed-method designs as those that include at least one quantitative method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to collect words), where neither type of method is inherently linked to any particular inquiry paradigm. 3.2 Research Process Research Objectives Research Model Open Questionaire Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Revised Questionnaire Pilot Study Draft Question Data Analysis Conclusion and Recommendati on Figure 4: Research Process 18 In research process for this study, Qualitative research and Quantitative research are two main steps. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often used than large samples (Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.), 2005). For this study, qualitative research helped the author to find the reasons why people smoke or not smoke, how often they smoke or when they smoke most. It also presented the factors influence respondent’s habit of smoking or not smoking, the tendency of smoking in the future and how can they avoid smoking or advising other to not smoke in future. The results from qualitative research will be used to design the questionnaires in quantitative research stage. In this research, researcher first designed some open questions and conduct in depth interview with 8 people including 5 white-collar workers, 2 blue-collar workers and 1 students. The rate of men and women is equal. Content of questionnaire is general and opened for respondents have opportunity to show their opinion including: - What are the advantages of smoking in your opinion? - What are the disadvantages of smoking in your opinion? - What are the factors that affect you in smoking or not smoking? - Who influence you most in smoking or not smoking? - When do you want to smoke? - Why do you smoke /or not smoke? - How many cigarettes do you smoke every day? - How long have you smoked? 19 - What can you do to decrease/ avoid smoking or help other people not to smoke in future? The next step is Quantitative research. Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc. (Given, Lisa M., 2008). Based on interviewing, researcher will have depth understanding and chose the suitable and necessary information that many people has same idea on that, combine to literature review to design questionnaires. The factors that cover necessary information is around four overall contents including the attitude of people towards smoking, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and intention towards smoking. 3.3 Data Collection Method 3.3.1 Target Population Vietnamese adolescents age from 15 to 35 years including men and women. They may be are currently smokers and not smokers. They are living in Ho Chi Minh City and come from three groups of students, white-collar workers and blue-collar workers. 3.3.2 Sample Size In term of determining sample size of the study, According to Comfrey and Lee (1992), “the adequacy of sample size might be evaluated very roughly on the following scale: 50 – very poor, 100 – poor, 200 – fair, 300 – good”. For this study, the sample size of 360 is good to achieve representativeness and variety of answer partly. 20 Firstly, researcher proceeded to send survey with questions for 2 groups including 3 sub-groups. Researcher already sent 380 surveys and expected to collect 360 surveys. However, the result collected was 330 qualified surveys as below: Group 1: Men Target Collected  Student: 60 samples 65 samples  White-collar worker: 60 samples 65 samples  Blue-collar worker: 60 samples 65 samples Group 2: Women  Student: 60 samples 60 samples  White-collar worker: 60 samples 60 samples  Blue-collar worker: 60 samples 15 samples For sub groups of White-collar workers and Student, the number of men is fairly similar (65 samples of men and 60 samples of women), but for Blue-collar worker, the number of men is bigger than women in sample (65 samples of men with 15 samples of women). In these studies, the women are used for purpose of comparison and contrast. For Blue-collar worker group, the number of women collected was only 15 while the expected and target number is 60 samples. This is a limitation of the research because most of woman workers were shy of answering the survey and they transferred the survey to man colleges. However, it did not affect a lot to the result. The reason why researcher chose sample from three above groups is that they represent for all different demographics. It will reflect fully about the perception of people to smoking. 3.3.3 Sampling Method And Data Collection 21 As mentioned before, the main tool for this research is survey questionnaire so approach a great quantity of respondent in short time is very important. Besides, limit to human resource and budget also affects sampling selection. Therefore, convenient sampling, (a non-probability sampling method) was used to select respondents. Although this method do not create representativeness and generalization like random sampling (a kind of probability sample) (Saunders & Thornhill, 2003), it could help the researcher obtain information quickly and economically. Primary data for this research was collected from the questionnaires. A wellorganized questionnaire was delivered to target population in three following ways. Firstly, the questionnaires were sent through email. Secondly, researcher came to Nguyen Tat Thanh University in District 4 and Phuong Nam College in Tan Phu District, Ho Chi Minh City and directly delivered the questionnaire and kindly asked teachers and students for their cooperation in providing the information. Thirdly, researcher came to Tan Binh Industrial Zone in Ho Chi Minh City and handed the questionnaires to workers. This process had the support from some friends who are the team leaders of workers in some companies. The researcher explained objective and asked for complete questionnaire. This process took place for 1 week from 5pm to 7pm every day which is rush hour at Tan Binh industrial zone. 3.3.4 Research Instrument And Questionnaire Design The most effective tool was the questionnaire that was built based on major concepts and variables used for this research. Firstly, the questionnaire design was started with developing a sound theoretical framework. From the data collected from qualitative research, basing on theoretical model, questionnaire was established. All suitable questions were raised to ensure the reliability and validity of all scales of the research. The questions are divided into two parts, part I includes 6 questions of nominal scale and ordinal scale and part II includes 19 questions which were formulated on a seven-point Likert-scale ranging 22 from 1 to 7, equivalent to strongly disagree, disagree, fairly disagree, neutral, fairly agree, agree and strongly agree respectively. All items in Part II is presented in table below: Table 1: Constructs and indicators of behavior (Developed from Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980, Moan, 2005 and built from qualitative research) Factor Attitude Items Encryption I think that I can decrease the stress when smoking ATT1 I think that I am perspicacious & cheery when smoking ATT2 I think that smoking is costly ATT3 I think that smoking will cause me the effects such as lung ATT4 towards cancer, throat cancer, brain hemorrhage smoking I think that smoking will influence my appearance such as ATT5 yellow teeth, dark lips, wrinkles, odor I think that smoking will cause the bad effect for the ATT6 health of people around My friends think that I should not to smoke SN1 Parents/Guardian have not allowed me to smoke from the SN2 time I was a child Subjective My teachers have not allowed me to smoke in school from SN3 Norms the time I was a child My darling/wife/husband does not agree for me to smoke SN4 The social bad prejudices towards smoking action SN5 influence me 23 Perceived I can stop smoking anytime if I want PBC1 I can stop smoking before bad health effect PBC2 Behavioral I know exactly the harm in cigarette Control PBC3 I can definitely refuse the smoking invitation from other PBC4 people I do not intend to smoke next time INT1 I intend to advice my friends, relatives to stop smoking INT2 Intention I intend to join some smoking prevention campaigns next INT3 to avoid time if I am appealed smoking I intend to use some additional supporting products if INT4 currently I am smoking 3.3.5 Data Analysis. All data collected from questionnaires will be analyzed with Statistical Package for Social scientists (SPSS) software version 16.0 with aim to extract descriptive information of data, Cronbach’s Alpha reliability result, factor analysis, Pearson correlation and multiple regression outcomes. According to Miller, 2000, reliability test was designed to administrate the internal consistency or homogeneity of the variables among data set then level of correlation between individual items could be indication of entire scale reliability. Test validity is the extent to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure. In the fields of psychological testing and educational testing, “Validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests” (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999). On a test with high validity, the items are closely linked to the test’s intended focus. After testing the reliability of each variable, 24 researcher conducted data analysis. Factor analysis is a technique of data reduction. For example, factor analysis can be used to identify the underlying components that explain the correlations among a set of variables. By this way, it is possible to apply a smaller set of measures to explain a substantial allocation of the total variance that is explained by all original variables. Factor analysis makes researcher not only cover the valid variables into relevant group and delete the invalid variables but also check the correlation or reliability of the variables in the same scale. Pearson correlation test is applied to measure the degree to which there is a linear regression between pair of metric variables. Basing on the result, it can be used to explore the relationship between one continuous dependent variable and a number of continuous independent variables or predictor. 25 Chapter 4 – Data Analysis And Research Results This chapter aims to present data analysis techniques that were clearly described including descriptive statistics, factor analysis, multiple regression and path analysis. It also shows the statistical outcome resulted from analysis of collected data. Those outcomes will be interpreted and discussed to establish foundation for recommendation as mentioned objectives. 4.1 Sample Demographics This research was conducted within Ho Chi Minh zone with aim to collect 360 well- responded questionnaires from the adolescent. 380 surveys were distributed and the researcher collected 340 ones. In 340 responses collected, 10 were stamped out because it was not completed in all questions and researcher chose only 330 qualified surveys for SPSS analysis. In this research, sample demographics were examined by age, educational level, occupation, marital status, income and current status of smoking. Following figures will present those clearly. Firstly, respondents’ profile is taken in to account. The figure shows that more than a haft of respondents has never smoked (covering 65.8%). The age is divided into 3 groups from 15 to 22, 23 to 28 and 29 to 35 years old and they come from three groups of occupation including Student, White-collar workers and Blue-collar workers. In this sample, just 1.5% of respondents are divorced and 1.2% is widowed. Nearly two third of them (72.1 %) is single and the remaining is married. More than a haft of them (58.18%) has low income of fewer than five millions Vietnam dong per month. This number reflects the reality of income of blue-collar workers and student respondents in our society. One third (34.24%) of respondents has medium in come from five to fifteen millions Vietnam dong and 7.58% of 26 them have high income more than fifteen millions Vietnam dong per month. About the educational level, just 14.2% of respondents graduated from high school, most of them in level of under graduate (college or university) (51.2%). The numbers on level of vocational school and graduate (master or higher) are similar of about 17%. Table 2: The profile of Respondents (N=330) Demographics Frequency Valid Percent Gender: Male 195 59.1 Female 135 40.9 15 - 22 130 39.4 23 - 28 124 37.6 29 - 35 76 23.0 High School 47 14.2 Vocational school 58 17.6 169 51.2 56 17.0 White-collar workers 125 37.9 Student 125 37.9 80 24.2 238 72.1 83 25.2 Age: Education level: Under graduate Graduate Occupation: Blue-collar workers Marital status: Single Married 27 Divorced 5 1.5 Widowed 4 1.2 192 58.18 5 - 10 mil/month 84 25.45 Over 10 - 15 mil/month 29 8.79 Over 15 - 25 mil/month 17 5.15 8 2.42 Smoke everyday 42 12.7 Smoke occasionally 40 12.1 Have quitted smoking 31 9.4 217 65.8 Income: Under 5 mil/ month Over 25 mil/month Current status of smoking: Have never smoked Male Female 40.9% Female Male 51.9% Figure 5: Percentages of Gender 28 58.18% 60.00% 40.00% 25.45% 20.00% 8.79% 5.15% 0.00% From 0 to More 5 VND than 5 to mil 10 VND mil More than 10 to 15 VND mil More than 15 to 25 VND mil 2.43% More than 25 VND mil Figure 6: Percentages of Income High school 16.97% Graduate 51.21% Vocational school Undergraduate Undergraduate Graduate 17.58% Vocational school 14.24% High school 0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% Figure 7: Educational level When checking about the current smoking status, 65.76% of respondents who have never smoked and 24.85% among them smoke every day or occasionally. The range of age in the research is from 15 to 35 years old. This data is suitable with the report of WHO in 2013 that the tobacco using rate in Viet Nam currently (estimating in population from 15 years old and over) is 23%. 29 65.76% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 12.73% 12.12% 9.39% Figure 8: Smoking status Seeing on Figure 10, we can see the relationship between the educational level and occupation that is presented in the figure below suits with common sense, which is that the higher level of education, the better job. The data shows that most of respondents who currently work as blue-collar worker have educational level of high school (68.08%) while most of respondents who currently work as white-collar worker have educational level of graduated (80.36%). High school Bluecollar workers 68.08% 19.0% 15.97% 17.85% Vocational school Undergraduate 27.66% Student 53.5% White- 4.26% 27.6% 36.69% collar workers 0% 1.79% 47.34% Graduate 80.36% 50% 100% Figure 9: Relationship between educational level and occupation 30 4.2 Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics is employed in this study to figure out fundamental features of data set such as means, standard deviation, frequency, dispersion and central tendency. Basing on those, descriptions as well as explanations of the way three main factors namely attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control making impacts on intention will be given. All of the questions were formulated on a seven-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 to 7, equivalent to strongly disagree, disagree, fairly disagree, neutral, fairly agree, agree and strongly agree respectively. 4.2.1 Attitude towards smoking Attitude aims to measure to what extent the smoking action affects to the respondents in term of positive or negative evaluation. An individual will hold a favorable attitude towards a given behavior if he/she believes that the performance of the behavior will lead to mostly positive outcomes (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of Attitude towards smoking Variables N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Stress decrease 330 1.00 7.00 2.779 2.004 Perspicacious & cheery 330 1.00 7.00 2.530 1.902 Costly 330 1.00 7.00 5.697 1.930 Cancer 330 1.00 7.00 5.233 2.316 330 1.00 7.00 5.761 330 1.00 7.00 6.021 Bad effects for appearance Bad effect for other people's health Valid N (listwise) 1.934 1.809 330 31 There is a pretty great deal of concurrence in overall attitude provided by effects of the smoking action. When showing the attitude towards the positive effects of smoking, means of score respondents rated are quite low ranging from 2.53 of ATT 2 to 2.78 of ATT 1, which means that respondents lowly appreciate the benefit of smoking. The neutral level is 4 but they just evaluate at point of 2.530 and 2.779, it illustrates the recognisability of respondents on the disadvantage of smoking. On the other hand, means of score they rated for negative effects of smoking is quite high ranging from 5.23 of ATT 4 to 6.02 of ATT 6, it presents that respondents have negative evaluation to smoking. 4.2.2 Subjective Norms Subjective Norms was generated to estimate the respondents’ perception about the smoking action, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others including friends, parents/guardians, teachers, partners and social prejudice. Subjective norm is the perceived social pressure to engage or not to engage in a behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of Subjective Norms Variables N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Friend 330 1.00 7.00 5.797 1.715 Parents/Guardian 330 1.00 7.00 6.073 1.651 Teacher 330 1.00 7.00 6.094 1.577 Partner 330 1.00 7.00 5.852 1.771 Social bad prejudice 330 1.00 7.00 5.009 1.976 Valid N (listwise) 330 The data is shown on above table presents that SN2 and SN3 have the near same average score (6.073 and 6.094) which are the high score on evaluating the perception of respondents about the smoking’s judgment of others people including parents/guardians and teachers in school. Other remaining items including SN1, SN4 and SN5 also have high mean score from 5.009 to 5.852, it means that all the subjects mentioned in study by researcher have judgment 32 towards the respondents. In detail, they think that the respondents should not to smoke or they do not want the respondents to smoke cigarette. These data also tell us that the society seems not to support smoking action in general. 4.2.3 Perceived Behavioral Control Perceived Behavioral Control refers to people's perceptions of their ability to perform a given behavior. (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Table 5: Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Behavioral Control Variables N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Stop anytime if I want Stop before bad health effect Know exact harm 330 1.00 7.00 4.776 2.065 330 1.00 7.00 5.279 1.886 330 1.00 7.00 5.452 1.729 Refuse invitation 330 1.00 7.00 5.603 1.851 Valid N (listwise) 330 The table 5 enables the researcher to conclude that respondents fairly agree that they have perception of their ability to stop smoking any time if they want (PBC1) through the mean of 4.776. For other variables, the mean is from 5.279 to 5.604 (PBC2, PBC3, PBC4), it illustrates that the belief of most respondents in their ability to control smoking is fairly strong to strong. 4.2.4 Intention to avoid smoking Intention is an indication of a person's readiness to perform a particular behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of behavior (Bagozzi, Baumgartner and Yi, 1998). 33 Table 6: Descriptive Statistics of Intention to avoid smoking Variables N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Will not smoke next time 330 1.00 7.00 5.652 1.698 Advice other to not smoke Smoking prevention campaign Addiction supporting product Valid N (listwise) 330 1.00 7.00 5.785 1.565 330 1.00 7.00 5.546 1.633 330 1.00 7.00 5.346 1.854 330 There is a similar high level in score from INT1 to INT4 which range from 5.346 to 5.785, hinting that the readiness of respondents to intend to have action to avoid smoking. Mean value of INT1 is 5.652, proving that respondents tend to stop smoking or continue not to smoke. Mean of INT2 is pretty high at 5.785, implying that they are ready to advice their friends or relatives to stop smoking. Concerning INT3 and INT4, the scores are still higher than 5 (5.546 and 5.346) which show that respondents seem to be willing to join some smoking prevention campaigns or they will use addiction supporting products if they are currently smoking. In summary, from descriptive statistics, we can see the tendency of people about smoking now. All responses present the Perceived harmfulness towards smoking and most of them have tendency of smoking avoidance in the future. This brings to tobacco producers a consideration about the changing the products to suit with social tend instead of cigarette. 4.2.5 Comparison among different demographics 4.2.5.1 The difference between male and female’s attitude towards smoking 34 Table 7: The difference between male and female’s attitude towards smoking Variable Female Male (Mean) (Mean) (Mean) No. Sig. Conclusion 1 Stress decrease 1.88 3.40 .000 Female < Male 2 Perspicacious & cheery 1.70 3.11 .000 Female < Male 3 Costly 5.96 5.51 .034 Female > Male 4 Cancer 5.26 5.22 .869 5 Bad effects for appearance 6.01 5.58 .043 Female > Male 6.33 5.81 .007 Female > Male Bad effect for other people's 6 health Table 7 above is for the purpose of comparison mean between the attitude of male and female in smoking behavior. Seeing on that, in total of 6 variables, there are 5 items that have significant except variable “Cancer”. It means that male and female has different perception towards the benefit of smoking as well as harmfulness of smoking. In detail, male think that smoking brings the benefit including stress decrease and perspicacious & cheery feeling much more than female. The reason why there is difference here is that very little women smoke and they just know about the bad effects of smoking without real experience why the men is opposite. They smoke and get some advantages of smoking. With three variables including Costly, Bad effects for appearance and Bad effect for other people's health, the mean of female group is higher than that of male group, and it shows that the perceived recognize about the harmfulness of smoking in female is much more than in male group. About the bad effect that smoking causes cancer, there is no significant, both male and female have the similar evaluation. 35 4.2.5.2 The difference between male and female’s evaluation towards effects from other people Table 8: The difference between male and female’s evaluation towards effects from other people 1 Friend 6.06 5.62 .021 2 Parents/Guardian 6.21 5.97 .194 3 Teacher 6.24 5.99 .149 4 Partner 6.04 5.72 .113 5 Social prejudice 5.22 4.86 .103 Female > Male The result in table 8 shows that the factor “friends think that respondent should not to smoke” has significant difference between male and female group. For female group, the influence of friend towards the think that they should not to smoke is much more than in male group. Four other factors do not have significant. 4.2.5.3 The difference between male and female’s control towards smoking Table 9: The difference between male and female’s control towards smoking 1 Stop anytime if I want 4.43 5.02 .014 2 Stop before bad health effect 5.30 5.27 .891 3 Know exact harm 5.44 5.46 .902 4 Refuse invitation 5.64 5.58 .782 Female < Male Women group do not think that they can stop smoking any time they want if currently they are smoking as much as men group think. It was illustrated through the significant in variable “stop anytime if I want”. For women, if people already smoked, it is not easy to get rid of smoking. For other factors, there are not much difference between the control ability in woman and man. 36 4.2.5.4 The difference between male and female’s intention to avoid smoking Table 10: The difference between male and female’s intention to avoid smoking 1 Will not smoke next time 5.93 5.46 .014 Female > Male 2 Advice relationship 6.00 5.64 .038 Female > Male 3 Smoking prevention campaign 5.99 5.24 .000 Female > Male 4 Addiction supporting product 5.64 5.14 .013 Female > Male For Intention to avoid smoking, all variables have significant with the mean from women group is bigger than in men group. These indicators show that the intention to avoid smoking and advising other to not smoke as well as being willing to join the smoking prevention campaign of female group is much more than that in male group. This is also suitable with the reality status of smoking between two genders. 4.3 Reliability statistics In the social sciences, acceptable reliability should be between 0.7 and 0.8 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) and total correlation must be greater than 0.3. Besides, there are also different reports about the acceptable values of alpha ranging from 0.7 to 0.95. “The higher Cronbach’s alpha, the greater reliability” (Nunally & Burnstein, 1994), however, if the alpha is too high it may suggest that some items are redundant as they are testing the same question but in a different guise (Mohsen Tavakol, Reg Dennick 2011). With that requirement, the Cronbach’s Alpha of the research including attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and intention which is 0.765, 0.787, 0.764, 0.814 respectively is qualified. In addition, none of items’ total correlation is lower than 0.3, so all item will be kept. 37 Table 11: Reliability of variables 4.4 Variable N No of item Cronbach’s alpha ATT 330 6 .765 SN 330 5 .787 PBC 330 4 .764 INT 330 4 .814 Validity Test According to Gerbing & Anderson (1988), low factor loading ([...]... smoking positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H2: Subjective norms positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H3: Perceived behavioral control positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking 1.5 Objectives Of The Study This research is conducted to define the factors influence smoking behavioral intention of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to 35 years old Specifically, the... focus on three main objectives:  To evaluate the factors influence the intention to avoid smoking of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to 35 years old and the factor most influences in smoking behavioral intention;  To define how the factors impact on the intention to avoid smoking;  To give the recommendations for the families, young people, policy government makers and tobacco producers 1.6 Scope And... H1: Attitude towards smoking positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H2: Subjective norms positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking H3: Perceived behavioral control positively affect to the intention to avoid smoking 16 Chapter 3 – Research Methodologies This chapter 3 provided the information about the overview of method to conduct the study like research instrument to data collection... most to smoking? ” and “How do those factors impact on the intention to avoid smoking? ” The ultimate question “How do government officers use these factors to contribute to their campaigns of smoking invention and how do producers use them to have right strategy on their business?” 1.4.2 Research hypothesis The hypothesis research is conducted as below: H1: Attitude towards smoking positively affect to. .. examining of the models presented previously, together with other studies related to determining factors for behavior of Sentosa and Mat, 2012; Ingram et al., 2000, the components have been changed to be more suitable with the direction of research and the theoretical framework applied in this study is displayed as following: Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of factors influence to intention to avoid smoking. .. the reasons and factors of smoking intention will contribute to give recommendations for the families and young people to find the right way to influence others in stopping smoking cigarette More important significance of this research is that it will help organizations and government offices to have more suggestion as well as evidence to design and implement the method to reduce the smoking rate in our... “Theory of planned behavior and smoking: meta-analysis and SEM model” (Topa and Moriano, 2010) and so on 12 In this study, theory of planed behavior is applied to define the factors influence smoking intention 2.2.3 Components Of Theory Of Planned Behavior 2.2.3.1 Attitude (towards the behavior) According to Ajzen, “attitude towards the behavior is an individual's positive or negative evaluation of self-performance... aims to give recommendations 5 for organizations, government offices and producers of smoking to apply for real life This is the goal that I need to archive in this research 1.4 Main Research Question And Hypothesis 1.4.1 Research question From the rationale of the research, these questions are raised: “What are factors influencing Vietnamese adolescent’s intention to avoid smoking and what factor influences... influences to smoking behavioral intention, the literature on Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was reviewed As the result, a comprehensive theoretical model of the characteristics of Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) success was tested to examine the relationship among the factors of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control and smoking behavioral intention 2.1 Concept Of Behavioral Intention. .. large enough to generate an overall picture which can be representative for all smoking people in Vietnam Moreover, the perceptions of these respondents are much diversified so the result of the research may be applied to just a certain range of people only 1.7 Significance And Implications This research will contribute to understand reasons and factors lead people to the intention to avoid smoking or ... affects to the intention to avoid smoking H2: Perceived harmfulness towards smoking positively affects to the intention to avoid smoking H3: Subjective norms positively affect to the intention to avoid. .. objectives:  To evaluate the factors influence the intention to avoid smoking of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to 35 years old and the factor most influences in smoking behavioral intention;  To define... affect to the intention to avoid smoking 1.5 Objectives Of The Study This research is conducted to define the factors influence smoking behavioral intention of Vietnamese adolescent age from 15 to