DEVELOPING MULTILATERALISM: THE UNITED STATES AND REGIONAL COOPERATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1945-67 HAN SIYING, CHERYL (B.A (Hons), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2012 DECLARATION I herebydeclarethat this thesisis my originalwork and it hasbeenwritten by me in its all the sourcesof informationwhich havebeenusedin entirety I haveduly acknowledged the thesis Thisthesishasalsonot beensubmittedfor any degreein any universitypreviously HanSiYing, Cheryl 24 August2012 But without faith, it is impossible to please Him, for he who comes to God must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder of those who diligently seek Him Hebrews 11: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this thesis marks the end of my MA course in NUS It has been a journey of faith with God and a season of living in His amazing grace I have been truly blessed by my school experience these past two years and give all thanks to my Father in heaven who has never failed to watch over and guide me My favourite psalm in the Bible describes the walk of faith in which one goes from strength to strength I am extremely grateful to the people who have enabled me to grow in this manner:  My supervisor, Dr Quek Ser Hwee, who once again rose to the challenge of overseeing me and believed that I could more than I thought Her patience and firmness kept me on track and her kindness provided the environment for my exploration of ideas and commission of errors during my time in NUS It has been a great and valuable time working with her!  My family who fully supported my decision to pursue a MA in NUS It was their presence I looked forward to whenever I had to drag myself home from school after intellectually stimulating but challenging courses My mum never failed to cook my favourite dishes nor stopped me from buying whatever food I wanted when I was discouraged My dad always allowed me to drive to school so that I could be as comfortable as possible My brother, Matthew, sacrificed his valuable study time to help me edit the map in Appendix A to satisfaction  My church friends who continually bore my complaints and grumblings while writing this thesis For two years, they heard me say, "I am writing my Masters thesis." Their support and prayers have encouraged me to persevere and they no longer need to hear this from me! At least for a while i  Mr Tim Yap Fuan of the NUS Central Library whose help was invaluable in the acquisition of primary and secondary sources Mr Tim's quick response to all my queries is much appreciated  Dr Michael Montesano from ISEAS who generously assisted me in navigating the collections in the ISEAS library  My MA friends, Wen-Ci, Ming Guang, Hui Lin, Celisa, Lee Min, Edgar, Brandon, Jermaine and all others who filled post-graduate life with so much fun and laughter  The faculty members and staff of the History Department who assisted me in so many ways and gave me many fond memories of my six years in NUS Han SiYing, Cheryl Singapore, August 2012 ii iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Summary v Introduction Chapter 1: American Foreign Policy and Post-Second World War Regionalism in Southeast Asia, 1945-54 14 Chapter 2: Trends and Problems: Emerging Southeast Asian Regionalism and US Multilateralism, 1955-58 35 Chapter 3: The Promises and Problems of Southeast Asian Regionalism, 1959-65 58 Chapter 4: Realizing Regionalism Dreams, 1965-67 82 Conclusion 109 Appendices 117 Bibliography 133 iv SUMMARY By 1967, a trinity of major regional institutions could be found in Southeast Asia—the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) SEATO was a military organization founded by the US and interested allies, ASEAN a purely Southeast Asian initiative and the ADB was somewhere in between, being a US-supported institution but run by Asians Because of the scale of US developmental assistance to Southeast Asia and diplomatic energy in inducing regionalism, no study of American and Southeast Asian international relations is satisfactory without due consideration of the regional institutions spearheaded by both sides As much as the US- and Southeast Asia-initiated regional bodies occurred quite separately from each other, bilateral ties influenced the process Therefore, bilateralism and multilateralism were closely interrelated and could help or hinder each other More importantly, these regional mechanisms were the result of the intellectual currents of the day and thus stemmed from the same premise—that peace in Southeast Asia was best achieved by development and multilateral cooperation Hence, I argue that the creation of regional developmental institutions in 1967, the ADB and ASEAN, was the result of both long term US policymaking from 1945 as well as American and Southeast Asian responses to the immediate regional problems and instability When considering American involvement in Southeast Asia, the focus is almost always on the military aspect on the mainland in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam and SEATO, suggesting a policy vacuum towards the peninsula area My research shows that US efforts in creating stability in the region were not limited to military means In fact, Washington also viewed Southeast Asia through the prism of multilateralism and modernization They v of their resources, making their economies more complementary, and promoting the orderly expansion of their foreign trade, in particular, intra-regional trade; (iv) to provide technical assistance for the preparation, financing and execution of development projects and programmes, including the formulation of specific project proposals; (v) to co-operate, in such a manner as the Bank may deem appropriate, within the terms of this Agreement, with the United Nations, its organs and subsidiary bodies including, in particular, the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, and with public international organizations and other international institutions, as well as national entities whether public or private, which are concerned with the investment of development funds in the region, and to interest such institutions and entities in new opportunities for investment and assistance; and (vi) to undertake such other activities and provide such other services as may advance its purpose ARTICLE FUNCTIONS Membership in the Bank shall be open to: (i) members and associate members of the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East; and (ii) other regional countries and non-regional developed countries which are members of the United Nations or of any of its specialized agencies Countries eligible for membership under paragraph of this Article which not become members in accordance with Article 64 of this Agreement may be admitted, under such terms and conditions as the Bank may determine, to membership in the Bank upon the 127 affirmative vote of two-thirds of the total number of Governors, representing not less than three-fourths of the total voting power of the members In the case of associate members of the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East which are not responsible for the conduct of their international relations, application for membership in the Bank shall be presented by the member of the Bank responsible for the international relations of the applicant and accompanied by an undertaking by such member that, until the applicant itself assumes such responsibility, the member shall be responsible for all obligations that may be incurred by the applicant by reason of admission to membership in the Bank and enjoyment of the benefits of such membership "Country" as used in this Agreement shall include a territory which is an associate member of the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East 128 Appendix E: Bangkok Declaration, August 1967 268 The Presidium Minister for Political Affairs/ Minister for Foreign Affairs of Indonesia, the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Singapore and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Thailand: MINDFUL of the existence of mutual interests and common problems among countries of South-East Asia and convinced of the need to strengthen further the existing bonds of regional solidarity and cooperation; DESIRING to establish a firm foundation for common action to promote regional cooperation in South-East Asia in the spirit of equality and partnership and thereby contribute towards peace, progress and prosperity in the region; CONSCIOUS that in an increasingly interdependent world, the cherished ideals of peace, freedom, social justice and economic well-being are best attained by fostering good understanding, good neighbourliness and meaningful cooperation among the countries of the region already bound together by ties of history and culture; CONSIDERING that the countries of SouthEast (sic) Asia share a primary responsibility for strengthening the economic and social stability of the region and ensuring their peacefull (sic) and progressive national development, and that they are determined to ensure their stability and security from external interference in any form or manifestation in order to preserve their national identities in accordance with the ideals and aspirations of their peoples; AFFIRMING that all foreign bases are temporary and remain only with the expressed concurrence of the countries concerned and are not intended to be used directly or 268 Bangkok Declaration, August 1967, reproduced in Association of Southeast Asian Nations, "Bangkok Declaration (1967)," August 1967, , August 2012 129 indirectly to subvert the national independence and freedom of States in the area or prejudice the orderly processes of their national development; DO HEREBY DECLARE: FIRST, the establishment of an Association for Regional Cooperation among the countries of South-East Asia to be known as the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) SECOND, that the aims and purposes of the Association shall be: To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of South-East Asian Nations; To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter; To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields; To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres; To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade, including the study of the problems of international commodity trade, the improvement of their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of their peoples; To promote South-East Asian studies; 130 To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer cooperation among themselves THIRD, that to carry out these aims and purposes, the following machinery shall be established: (a) Annual Meeting of Foreign Ministers, which shall be by rotation and referred to as ASEAN Ministerial Meeting Special Meetings of Foreign Ministers may be convened as required (b) A Standing committee, under the chairmanship of the Foreign Minister of the host country or his representative and having as its members the accredited Ambassadors of the other member countries, to carry on the work of the Association in between Meetings of Foreign Ministers (c) Ad-Hoc Committees and Permanent Committees of specialists and officials on specific subjects (d) A National Secretariat in each member country to carry out the work of the Association on behalf of that country and to service the Annual or Special Meetings of Foreign Ministers, the Standing Committee and such other committees as may hereafter be established FOURTH, that the Association is open for participation to all States in the South-East Asian Region subscribing to the aforementioned aims, principles and purposes FIFTH, that the Association represents the collective will of the nations of South-East Asia to bind themselves together in friendship and cooperation and, through joint efforts and sacrifices, secure for their peoples and for posterity the blessings of peace, freedom and prosperity 131 DONE in Bangkok on the Eighth Day of August in the Year One Thousand Nine Hundred and Sixty-Seven 132 Bibliography Primary Sources Archival Sources (Including Databases and Online Material) Declassified Documents Reference System Digital National Security Archive Documents from the National Archives and Records Administration Foreign Relations of the United States 1945, Vol.6; 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Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore The mainland sub-region comprises the modern nation states of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam According to Milton Osborne, mainland and island Southeast. .. Americans, in deference to the British and the French, agreed not to include the Indochinese states in 51 Cited in Kai Dreisbach, "Between SEATO and ASEAN: The United States and the Regional Organization... was disbanded but the ADB and ASEAN remain to this day and stand partly as testimony to US efforts to influence and retain a role in Southeast Asian affairs The US has been involved in Southeast