A TOUCH OF WARMTH: AN INVESTIGATION OF HOW INTERPERSONAL TOUCH MAY MODULATE OBSERVERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF WARMTH AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR ZHAO HUIJING CLARIS (B.Soc.Sci. (Hons.), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2013 DECLARATION I hereby declare that the thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. __________________ Zhao Huijing Claris November 2013 iii Acknowledgements This thesis has been a major academic undertaking and I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the following people: To A/P Annett Schirmer, thank you for taking me under your wings, and for your understanding towards changes in my life circumstances. Your supervision allowed me the space to attempt to join together very different lines of research to create something novel, and of which could be of mutual interest. I also had the privilege to experience the joys of independent learning while always having the comforting knowledge that guidance will be available when I need it. All these made the course of this pursuit enjoyable in itself. To my lab mates at Brain and Behavior Lab, you have been a source of fun and support throughout this period. I enjoyed the time we spent together sharing opinions and feelings regarding graduate studies, research, or just life in general. Thank you for your friendship and support. To my family and friends, thank you for your love, care, understanding, and prayers. Your support and encouragements were a constant source of motivation for me to give my best throughout the course of my graduate studies. I am truly blessed to have all of you in my life. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………… iii Table of Contents……………………………… ………………………… . iv Summary…………………………………………………………… . vi List of Tables…… ………………………………… .………………………. vii List of Figures………………………………………………………………… viii CHAPTER 1: Introduction……….…………………………………….…… Relation between touch and social warmth……….…………… …… Relation between touch and physical warmth.……………… .………. Effect of touch on prosocial behavior…………… ……………… Simulation during observation of touch….…………………………… … .…… .… .………………………………………… A link between social and physical warmth………………………… . Overview of the present research….……………………… .………… 11 CHAPTER 2: Experiment 1…………………… .……………………… . Method………………………………………………………….… 1. Participants………………………………………………… . Materials…………………………………………………… . Procedure….…………………………………………… Results……………………………………………………….……… . Discussion…………………………………………………………… 13 14 14 14 16 18 20 .………… CHAPTER 3: Experiment 2.… ……………………………………… . Method…………………….…………………………………….…… 3. … Participants………………….…………………… …………… Materials………………………………………………… . Apparatus……………………………………………….….… . ……. Procedure……………………………………………….……… Results……………………… ……………………… ……… Main analyses……… ……………………… ……… Additional analyses……… ……………………… ………… Analyses with individual difference variables…………………. Discussion…………………………………….…………… .………… 24 28 28 28 31 31 34 34 36 38 40 CHAPTER 4: General Discussion.…………………… .…………………… 44 Implicit versus explicit processing……………………………… … . 44 Interpersonal touch and culture……………………………………… 46 v Contributions, implications, and future directions………………… . Conclusion……………………………………………………… . 47 52 References…….…………………………………………………… .…… . Appendices….………………………………………………………………… Appendix A: Sample stimuli from Experiment Appendix B: Empathy Quotient Appendix C: Private Body Consciousness Subscale 54 67 67 68 71 vi Summary Past studies found that being touched leads individuals to act more prosocially. The present thesis tested the hypothesis that this effect also applies to third-party bystanders who observe interpersonal touch. This hypothesis was derived from three lines of research. First, interpersonal touch has been linked to both social and physical warmth. Second, perceiving social warmth enhances physical warmth (and vice versa) and both promotes prosociality towards others. Lastly, there is evidence that observers of others' tactile experiences are internally simulating this experience. Experiment investigated whether the presence of interpersonal touch in social interactions enhances observers' perceptions of social warmth defined as prosocial intentions. Experiment explored whether observing such interactions increases prosocial behavior and whether temperature-related embodied simulations play a mediating role. The results showed that observers perceive interactions involving touch as socially warmer than interactions without touch. However, their prosocial tendencies appear unaffected and no evidence of physical warmth simulations was observed. Possible implications of these results are discussed. vii List of Tables Table Caption Page Means and Standard Deviations of Donation Amount, Perception of Ambient Temperature Change, and Skin Temperature Change by Condition 36 Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analyses exploring moderation effect of Perceived Ambient Temperature Change and Skin Temperature Change in the prediction of Donation Outcome by Condition 37 Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analyses exploring moderation effect of Trait Empathy and Private Body Consciousness in the prediction of Donation Outcome by Condition 39 Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses exploring moderation effect of Trait Empathy and Private Body Consciousness in the prediction of Perceived Ambient Temperature Change by Condition 39 Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses exploring moderation effect of Trait Empathy and Private Body Consciousness in the prediction of Skin Temperature Change by Condition 40 viii List of Figures Figure Caption Page Sequence of events per trial in Experiment 17 Mean warmth ratings for touch and no-touch conditions as a function of rating target in Experiment 20 CHAPTER Introduction Interpersonal touch is a significant part of humans’ social interactions. In infancy, nurturing touch from the mother assures the infant of safety and comfort. Activities involving touch such as breast-feeding provide the infant with food, physical stimulation, and warmth (Montagu, 1971). It is also likely during these repeated experiences of physical contact that the infant’s first psychological connection to another social being develops: the formation of an attachment bond. Supporting this, converging evidence indicates that touch provided by mothers to infants promotes mother-infant bonding and fosters a secure attachment relationship (Anisfeld, Casper, Nozyce, & Cunningham, 1990; Lamb, 1982), while touch aversion in mothers hinders the development of a healthy attachment relationship (Main & Stadtman, 1981). More generally, research has established frequent physical contact between infant and caregiver to be critical for healthy socio-emotional development (Blackwell, 2000). Touch continues to play an important role in interpersonal relationships and communication in adulthood. For example, research indicates that interpersonal touch is an important nonverbal behavior that communicates intimacy in both romantic relationships and friendships (Monsour, 1992; Thayer, 1986), and that touch tends to increase with increasing relational intimacy (Guerrero & Andersen, 1991). Research investigating touch in adulthood has explored multiple domains, such as in power relations in the context of social dominance or as an affective phenomenon (see Hertenstein, Verkamp, Kerestes, & Holmes, 2006; Stier & Hall, 1984 for reviews). There are many diverse types of touch between people. Thus, it is helpful to define the boundaries of the current topic of study within these touch types. According to Morrison, Löken, and Olausson (2010), interpersonal touch that is nonsexual and hedonically positive can be broadly classified into three main types: ‘dynamic touch’, which involves “continuous movement over the skin from one point to another and can often be repetitious”; ‘protracted touch’, which involves “longer and often mutual skin-to-skin contact between individuals, and usually includes a component of pressure”; and ‘simple touch’, which involves “brief, intentional contact to a relatively restricted location on the body surface of the receiver during a social interaction” (Morrison et al., 2010, p. 306). The scope of the current research is restricted to simple touches that can be witnessed across adults regardless of sex or type of relationship. 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Please read each statement carefully and rate how strongly you agree or disagree with it by using the scale below. There are no right or wrong answers, or trick questions. Strongly agree Slightly agree Slightly disagree Strongly disagree 1. ____ I can easily tell if someone else wants to enter a conversation. 2. ____ I prefer animals to humans. 3. ____ I try to keep up with the current trends and fashions. 4. ____ I find it difficult to explain to others things that I understand easily, when they don’t understand it first time. 5. ____ I dream most nights. 6. ____ I really enjoy caring for other people. 7. ____ I try to solve my own problems rather than discussing them with others. 8. ____ I find it hard to know what to in a social situation. 9. ____ I am at my best first thing in the morning. 10. ____ People often tell me that I went too far in driving my point home in a discussion. 11. ____ It doesn’t bother me too much if I am late meeting a friend. 12. ____ Friendships and relationships are just too difficult, so I tend not to bother with them. 13. ____ I would never break a law, no matter how minor. 14. ____ I often find it difficult to judge if something is rude or polite. 15. ____ In a conversation, I tend to focus on my own thoughts rather than on what my listener might be thinking. 16. ____ I prefer practical jokes to verbal humour. 17. ____ I live life for today rather than the future. 69 18. ____ When I was a child, I enjoyed cutting up worms to see what would happen. 19. ____ I can pick up quickly if someone says one thing but means another. 20. ____ I tend to have very strong opinions about morality. 21. ____ It is hard for me to see why some things upset people so much. 22. ____ I find it easy to put myself in somebody else’s shoes. 23. ____ I think that good manners are the most important thing a parent can teach their child. 24. ____ I like to things on the spur of the moment. 25. ____ I am good at predicting how someone will feel. 26. ____ I am quick to spot when someone in a group is feeling awkward or uncomfortable. 27. ____ If I say something that someone else is offended by, I think that that’s their problem, not mine. 28. ____ If anyone asked me if I liked their haircut, I would reply truthfully, even if I didn’t like it. 29. ____ I can’t always see why someone should have felt offended by a remark. 30. ____ People often tell me that I am very unpredictable. 31. ____ I enjoy being the centre of attention at any social gathering. 32. ____ Seeing people cry doesn’t really upset me. 33. ____ I enjoy having discussions about politics. 34. ____ I am very blunt, which some people take to be rudeness, even though this is unintentional. 35. ____ I don’t tend to find social situations confusing. 36. ____ Other people tell me I am good at understanding how they are feeling and what they are thinking. 37. ____ When I talk to people, I tend to talk about their experiences rather than my own. 38. ____ It upsets me to see an animal in pain. 70 39. ____ I am able to make decisions without being influenced by people’s feelings. 40. ____ I can’t relax until I have done everything I had planned to that day. 41. ____ I can easily tell if someone else is interested or bored with what I am saying. 42. ____ I get upset if I see people suffering on news programmes. 43. ____ Friends usually talk to me about their problems as they say that I am very understanding. 44. ____ I can sense if I am intruding, even if the other person doesn’t tell me. 45. ____ I often start new hobbies but quickly become bored with them and move on to something else. 46. ____ People sometimes tell me that I have gone too far with teasing. 47. ____ I would be too nervous to go on a big roller-coaster. 48. ____ Other people often say that I am insensitive, though I don’t always see why. 49. ____ If I see a stranger in a group, I think that it is up to them to make an effort to join in. 50. ____ I usually stay emotionally detached when watching a film. 51. ____ I like to be very organised in day to day life and often make lists of the chores I have to do. 52. ____ I can tune into how someone else feels rapidly and intuitively. 53. ____ I don’t like to take risks. 54. ____ I can easily work out what another person might want to talk about. 55. ____ I can tell if someone is masking their true emotion. 56. ____ Before making a decision I always weigh up the pros and cons. 57. ____ I don’t consciously work out the rules of social situations. 58. ____ I am good at predicting what someone will do. 59. ____ I tend to get emotionally involved with a friend’s problems. 60. ____ I can usually appreciate the other person’s viewpoint, even if I don’t agree with it. 71 Appendix C Private Body Consciousness Subscale Please read each statement carefully and rate how strongly you agree or disagree with it by using the scale below. Strongly disagree Disagree Somewhat disagree Somewhat agree Agree 1. ____ I am sensitive to internal bodily tensions. 2. ____ I am very aware of changes in my body temperature. 3. ____ I know immediately when my mouth or throat gets dry. 4. ____ I can often feel my heart beating. 5. ____ I am quick to sense the hunger contractions of my stomach. Strongly agree [...]... frequently To avoid the immediate succession of images that looked almost the same, half the participants of each sex rated the original images and half rated the mirrored images Thus, each participant rated a total of 144 images for all of the three rating targets (i.e., the toucher (and counterpart), touchee (and counterpart), and overall interaction (and counterpart)) across the three blocks The images within... investigate whether simulations of physical warmth may play a mediating role in this process This was achieved by presenting images created in Experiment 1 to participants in a design with touch as a between-subject factor, and measures of prosocial behavior and simulations of physical warmth as the dependent variables Prosocial behavior was measured in the form of the amount of money participants chose... touchers touched the touchees on the same body part and in roughly the same manner The only changes were in terms of the identity of the actors and the viewing angle) A total of 72 of such touch images were generated this way For each touch image, a no -touch control counterpart was created In these, the hand/arm position from the touching action were altered Most of the time, the hand in question was removed... touch and social warmth as conceptualized as prosocial intentions, available research suggests that there is a probable relation For example, a study conducted by Jones and Yarbrough (1985) found that touch recipients perceive touch to communicate messages such as support and appreciation Research also indicates that receiving touch from others can induce a person to adopt a more positive attitude towards... candidate mechanism through which it could come about is the embodiment of warmth Based on the literature reviewed above, observing interpersonal touch should affect mental and perhaps physical aspects of body temperature This is because actual physical touch produces sensations of physical warmth and increases social 12 warmth and observers may embody these processes No study thus far has examined these... hand while the skin temperature of the right index finger of the observer was measured The right hand was chosen as most people are righthanders and presumably touch others more often with their right hand 26 Lastly, questionnaires tapping individual differences in empathy and attention to internal body sensations were also included to factor in the possibility that empathy and bodily awareness may. .. social warmth proposed by Fiske and colleagues (2007) Relation between touch and physical warmth Another important element of interpersonal touch is the sensation of temperature While no research to my knowledge has directly examined temperature effects associated with simple touch, a sensation of physical warmth is likely to be induced during contact with another person’s skin (typically 3235°C at standard... touch from one actor’s hand to another actor’s shoulder, upper arm, or forearm Each touch image (144) had a no -touch counterpart (144) Please refer to Appendix A for samples The touch images were created in the following manner For each type of touch gesture, four dyad combinations were created (male touching male, female touching female, male touching female, and female touching male), so that the stimuli... (e.g., interpersonal distance, postures of actors, arm positions, etc) Lastly, a mirror image counterpart (produced by a horizontal inversion) was created for each touch and no -touch image such that the laterality of the motor actions was reversed (e.g., if the left hand was originally involved in the touching action, it is now the right hand) Thus, a wide range of possible combinations of spatial configurations... other hand, prosocial concepts and processes that bring people closer together seem to induce a sense of physical warmth For example, reading about a prosocial personality increased people’s perceptions of the ambient temperature compared to reading about a competent personality (Szymkow, Chandler, IJzerman, Parzuchowski, & Wojciszke, 2013) In another study, participants who were situated physically . A TOUCH OF WARMTH: AN INVESTIGATION OF HOW INTERPERSONAL TOUCH MAY MODULATE OBSERVERS PERCEPTIONS OF WARMTH AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR ZHAO HUIJING CLARIS (B.Soc.Sci results are discussed. vii List of Tables Table Caption Page 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Donation Amount, Perception of Ambient Temperature Change, and Skin. suggest that interpersonal touch is probably associated with the notion of social warmth proposed by Fiske and colleagues (2007). Relation between touch and physical warmth Another important element