MAPPING ENGLISH LINGUISTIC CAPITAL: THE CASE OF FILIPINO DOMESTIC WORKERS IN SINGAPORE BEATRIZ PAREDES LORENTE (M.A. Literature, Ateneo de Manila University; M.A. Linguistics, Ohio University) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE Acknowledgements When I started this dissertation, I did not know where my questions would take me. My thanks go to the institutions and people who have been my oases, lighthouses and travelling companions. First and foremost, I am grateful to the women who participated in this study who shared their time and their stories with me, and who constantly asked why I was researching about English when there were more dramatic things I could write about. I am thankful to them, to my students at the Bayanihan Centre and to the volunteers of the Filipino Overseas Workers of Singapore (FOWS) skills training program for keeping me grounded in the everyday realities of using English. My supervisor, Anne Pakir, believed in what I had to say before I found the words to talk and write about my topic coherently. She patiently and constantly challenged me to clarify my thoughts and unstintingly supported me through more than six years of writer’s block, life changes and new work demands. My thanks go to friends and former colleagues at the Asia Research Institute of the National University of Singapore, especially the Asian migrations cluster who exposed me to research on transnational migration. My thanks also go to colleagues at the Language and Communication Centre of Nanyang Technological University. I owe adobo to Francesco Cavallaro, Ng Bee Chin and Tan Ying Ying. I am also grateful to Chan Ling Ling and Lee i Acknowledgements ii Hwee Hoon who found ways to help me manage my full teaching load and my writing between January to March 2007. Friends read early versions of some of my chapters and discussed the issues in this dissertation with me at various times. I am particularly grateful to Shanthini Pillai, Noorashikin Abdul Rahman, and T. Ruanni F. Tupas for being critical readers and wonderful traveling companions. This dissertation would not have been completed without a supportive family. I am grateful to my mother, Amelia P. Lorente, for believing in my work and my sister, Lora Frances P. Lorente, for help in inputting and organizing data and keeping me sane. Finally, I am especially grateful to my husband, Bruno Trezzini, who read through and critically commented on drafts of my dissertation and who took care of everything else so I could concentrate on writing. Thank you for everything. This dissertation is dedicated to my late father, Felino L. Lorente, a teacher, writer and scholar, who showed me just how rewarding asking questions could be. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements .i Table of Contents . iii Summary .vi List of Tables and Figures viii Acronyms ix English Voices in an Unequal World System .1 English as a site and means of symbolic struggle .2 English in an unequal world system .4 Voices in English The case study: English-speaking Filipino domestic workers in Singapore Research questions 10 Relevance of the study 11 Outline of the study 15 Linguistic Capital in Transnational Arenas 17 Language and globalization 17 Theorizing voice .21 Revisiting linguistic capital .22 Inequalities in the world system 28 The world system .28 Transnational arenas .30 Agency and negotiated identites 32 Agency .32 Negotiated identities .35 Remapping linguistic capital 38 The macro-level of analysis .39 The micro-level of analysis .41 Summary .43 Listening to Voices: Methodology and Data Collection .44 The Bayanihan Centre 46 Secondary data sources .49 Class cards 49 Self-selection bias 50 Statistical profile of FDWs who attended English classes 51 In-depth interviews with Filipino domestic workers 53 The in-depth interviews .54 The interview participants .61 Attitudinal survey .65 Additional data sources .68 iii Table of Contents iv In the Grip of English: The Philippine State and the Making of Overseas Filipino Workers 70 The Philippines as a labor-sending state .70 History of labor migration from the Philippines .73 Patterns of labor migration from the Philippines 77 The feminization of migrant Filipino labor .81 The grip of English .86 The history of English in the Philippines 89 The making of English-speaking overseas Filipino workers 93 English in shifting indexicalities 98 Re-indexing competitiveness .101 Re-indexing nationalism 106 Summary .114 The Script of Servitude: Maid Agencies in Singapore and the Positioning of English-speaking Products .115 Maid agencies as mediating and centering institutions 116 The mediating and centering functions of transnational labor brokers .117 Maid Agencies in Singapore .120 Positioning English-speaking products .129 Representations of Filipino domestic workers in Singapore .129 The relative values of English linguistic capital 135 Styling the domestic worker .139 Performing the script of servitude .143 Displaying servitude 153 Summary .160 Translating Selves: Filipino Domestic Workers in Singapore and the Trajectories of English .162 Trajectories of English 163 Translating selves .164 English in the Philippines 164 English in Singapore 168 “I have lost my English” 168 “You’re the one who adjusts, not them, right?” .173 “’Yung madam/Madonna ko” 177 “Pa-English-English” in the Philippines .185 “Lord, help me to English my tongue” 189 Summary .191 Mapping Voices: Filipino Domestic Workers in Singapore and the Symbolic Values of “Good English” .192 The symbolic values of “good English” .192 Good English is “puro Ingles” 193 Singlish is not “good English” 195 Mapping voices .201 Positioning employers .201 Table of Contents v Employers who speak Singlish and/or who are not fluent in ‘standard’ English 202 Expatriate employers and Singaporean employers who speak ‘standard’ English 207 A hierarchy of desirable employers? 210 Positioning domestic workers 213 More than just a maid .213 Indonesian domestic workers .217 Locating belonging .222 Accents of non-belonging 222 In-group codes and offstage identities .224 Summary .227 Conclusion: Towards Conditions of Possibility .228 English linguistic capital and symbolic struggles .229 Inequalities and English 231 Mobilizing English .233 Enabling conditions of possibility 235 Appendix 1: Sample of a “Maid Test” .239 Appendix 2: Sample Biodata of a Domestic Worker .243 Appendix 3: Questionnaire (English Translation) .244 Bibliography 248 Summary Current studies of global English have been criticized for being caught between dichotomies – between arguments about homogeneity or heterogeneity, linguistic imperialism or linguistic hybridity – which not allow for sufficiently complex understandings of what is currently happening to English and to the communities, groups and individuals who are appropriating it. This study examines how, as linguistic capital, English is both a resource for and a domain of symbolic struggles in transnational social fields or arenas. This is contextualized by remapping English in macro- and microlevels of analysis to account for how it is embedded in structural inequalities and how it is mobilized in the immediate struggles of individuals. In this regard, this study draws from the case of Filipino domestic workers in Singapore. The case presents a unique opportunity to explore how the inequalities of the world system and the acts of English identification of individuals are configured in the context of the flows of migrant women between the Philippines and Singapore, two post-colonial states in contrasting stages of development, that had and that continue to have a historical and cultural formation negotiated in or mediated by English. To unpack the different dimensions of the case, the study focuses on how macro- and micro-level social actors in the transnational arena of domestic work appropriate English and what the effects of these appropriations may be, at their levels. These social actors are the Philippine vi Summary vii state, transnational maid agencies in Singapore and the Filipino domestic workers in Singapore themselves. In particular, the study describes how, in the transnational field, English is appropriated by: (1) the Philippine state in its discourse about the competitiveness of its migrant workers; (2) maid agencies in Singapore, in their script of servitude for Filipino domestic workers; and (3) the Filipino domestic workers in Singapore in how they negotiate the everyday realities of their marginalized position in Singapore society. This study argues that English is embedded in multiple interconnected sites of symbolic struggle. The appropriations of English at different levels and their effectiveness at generating uptake are contingent on the spacespecific distribution of valuable material and symbolic resources. This has particular implications for marginalized groups such as the Filipino domestic workers who mobilize English in their immediate struggles to reconstitute the everyday impositions of structural power on their lives. An understanding of the interactions between structural inequalities engendered by English and agentive appropriations of English should inform strategic interventions. List of Tables and Figures Table 1: General biographical profile of interview participants at time of interview 57 Table 2: Profile of interview participants: education, previous work experience and reasons for coming to Singapore 58 Table 3: Annual deployment of overseas Filipino workers, 1984-June 2005 .78 Table 4: Top 10 destinations of overseas Filipinos, as of December 2004 .79 Table 5: Top 10 destinations of landbased overseas Filipino workers (rehires and new hires), 2004 and 2005 .80 Table 6: Skill category, selected years (in %) 81 Table 7: Deployed overseas Filipino workers (new hires, top 10 occupational groups by sex), 2005 82 Table 8: Annual deployment of new hires by skill category (female percentage in brackets), 1992-2002 .83 Table 9: Top 10 destinations of overseas Filipino workers and percent female in OFW population, 2002 85 Table 10: Estimated stock of transnational domestic workers in Singapore, 1986-2004 122 Table 11: Generalized levels of English proficiency among transnational domestic workers in Singapore .130 Table 12: Prevailing stereotypes of Filipino, Indonesian and Sri Lankan transnational domestic workers in Singapore 131 Table 13: Prevailing stereotypes of foreign domestic workers in Canada .137 Table 14: Forms of address/reference: Domestic workers for employers .179 Table 15: Preferred forms of reference: Employers for domestic workers .181 Table 16: Forms of address/reference: Domestic workers for their employers’ children .182 Table 17: Preferred forms of reference: Employers’ children for domestic workers 183 Table 18: Words used to refer to (a) employers and experiences with domestic work and (b) activities, etc. on their days off .226 Figure 1: Posters on the glass door of a maid agency in Lucky Plaza .124 Figure 2: Rules posted on a glass door of a maid agency in Lucky Plaza .155 viii Acronyms 3D AB BEP BS BSP DepEd DH DOLE DOLOP EOI FDI FDW FOWS FUSE GDP HB HSW LCP MOI MOM NC2 NSO OFW OPA OWWA POEA SWS TESDA UNIFEM Dirty, degrading, dangerous Bachelor of Arts Bilingual education policy Bachelor of Science Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Department of Education Domestic helper Department of Labor and Employment DOLE Labor Opportunities Program Export-oriented industrialization Foreign direct investment Filipino domestic worker Filipino Overseas Workers in Singapore Foundation for Upgrading the Standard of Education Gross domestic product House Bill Household service worker Live-in Caregiver Program Medium of instruction Ministry of Manpower National Certificate II National Statistics Office Overseas Filipino worker Overseas performing artist Overseas Workers Welfare Administration Philippine Overseas Employment Administration Social Weather Station Technical Education and Skills Development Authority United Nations Development Fund for Women ix 245 Appendix 6. I like reading English magazines or books. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 7. I feel shy to speak in English. Strongly Agree Agree 8. My English will help me find work in other countries. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 9. I would feel confident speaking to an American or a British. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree 10. I would like to speak like my employer does. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 11. My English skills will help me get a better-paying job. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 12. I like the Singaporean pronunciation of English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 13. I like reading Tagalog magazines or books. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 14. I like the British pronunciation of English. Strongly Agree Agree 15. Filipinos speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree 246 Appendix 16. My present employers speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree 17. I speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree 18. Filipino nurses in Singapore speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 19. Indonesian maids speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 20. Americans and British speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 21. Filipino maids speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 22. Singaporeans speak good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure 23. The staff at the Philippine embassy speaks good English. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 24. Before I came to Singapore, I thought my English was: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor 25. My first employer in Singapore thought my English was: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor Average Poor Very Poor 26. Now I think my English is: Very Good Good 247 Appendix 27. My present employers think my English is: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor 28. If I ever work in another country, maybe my English will become: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor Which countries are you thinking of going to? ____________________________ 29. If I stay on in Singapore, maybe my English will become: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor 30. If I go home to the Philippines to work, maybe my English will be: Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor ________________________________________________________________________ Would you be willing to be interviewed by me for my study? Yes No How can I interview you? (Please check all that apply) ( ) By phone My phone number is _____________________. You can call me on these days: _____________ at these times: __________________________. ( ) In person Can I interview you on weekdays (M-F)? Yes No Can I interview you on Saturdays? Yes No Can I interview you on Sundays? Yes No What are your Sundays off? Every Sunday Every 1st & 3rd only Every 2nd & 4th only My phone number is ____________________________ Thank You! ________________________________________________________________________ Bibliography 5T Pinoy maids march in Hong Kong vs. new deployment rules. (2007, 29 January 2007). Cebu Daily News. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://globalnation.inquirer.net/cebudailynews/news/view_article.php? article_id=46222. Aguilar, F. V. (2002). Beyond stereotypes: human subjectivity in the structuring of global migrations. In F. V. Aguilar (Ed.), Filipinos in global migrations: at home in the world? (pp. 1-38). Quezon City: Philippine Migration Research Network and Philippine Social Science Council. Anderson, B. (2000). Doing the dirty work?: the global politics of domestic labour. London: Zed Books. Anderson, B. R. (1991). Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (rev. and extended ed.). London: Verso. Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: cultural dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Arroyo, G. M. (2002). Speech on Migrant Workers' Day, June 2002. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from http://www.ops.gov.ph. Asis, M. M. B. (2005). Caring for the world: Filipino domestic workers gone global. In S. Huang, B. S. A. Yeoh & N. Abdul Rahman (Eds.), Asian women as transnational domestic workers (pp. 21-53). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Associated Press. (2006, November 20). Philippines forecasts 2007 remittances from overseas workers to hit record US$14.1 billion. International Herald Tribune. Avila, B. S. (2003, February). Kudos to GMA for the return to English. The Philippine Star, p. 2. Avila, B. S. (2003, February 5). Yes, learning language should be a choice. Philippine Star, pp. B-8. Bailey, A. J. (2001). Turning transnational: notes on the theorization of international migration. International Journal of Population Geography, 7, 413-428. Bakan, A. B., & Stasiulis, D. K. (1995). Making the match: Domestic placement agencies and the racialization. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society, 20(2), 303-335. Ball, R. (1997). The role of the state in the globalization of labour markets: the case of the Philippines. Environment and Planning A, 29, 1603-1628. Basch, L., Glick Schiller, N., & Blanc, C. S. (1994). Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predictions, and Deterritorialized Nation-States. Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach. 248 Bibliography 249 BBC News. (2007, February 15). Filipino remittances hit $12.8bn. Retrieved http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/February 18, 2007, from 1/hi/business/6364143.stm. Blackledge, A., & Pavlenko, A. (2001). Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts. International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(3), 243257. Block, D. (2006). Multilingual identities in a global city: London stories. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Block, D., & Cameron, D. (2002a). Introduction. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 1-10). London: Routledge. Block, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002b). Globalization and language teaching. London: Routledge. Blommaert, J. (1997). Comments. Current Anthropology, 38(5), 805-806. Blommaert, J. (2003). Commentary: A sociolinguistics of globalization. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 607-623. Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: a critical introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press. Blommaert, J. (2006). Language policy and national identity. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An introduction to language policy: theory and method. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Blommaert, J., Collins, J., & Slembrouck, S. (2005). Spaces of multilingualism. Language & Communication, 25(3), 197-216. Bourdieu, P. (1977). The economics of linguistic exchanges. Social Science Information, 16(6), 645 - 668. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). New York: Greenwood Press. Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power (G. Raymond & M. Adamson, Trans.). Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press. Bourdieu, P. (2000). Pascalian meditations. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bradshaw, Y., & Wallace, M. (1991). Informing generality and explaining uniqueness: the place of case studies in comparative research. In C. C. Ragin (Ed.), Issues and alternatives in comparative research (pp. 154171). Leiden: E. J. Brill. Brown, A. (2000). Singapore English in a nutshell: an alphabetical description of its features. Singapore: Federal Publications. Brutt-Griffler, J. (2002). World English: A study of its development. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. London: Routledge. Butler, J. (1997). The psychic life of power: theories in subjection. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Bibliography 250 Cameron, D. (2000). Styling the worker: Gender and the commodification of language in the globalized service economy. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4(3), 323-347. Cameron, D. (2002). Globalization and the teaching of 'communication skills'. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 67-82). London and New York: Routledge. Canagarajah, A. S. (2005a). Dilemmas in planning English/vernacular relations in post-colonial communities. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), 418-447. Canagarajah, A. S. (Ed.). (2005b). Reclaiming the local in language policy and practice. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. Carter, B., & Sealey, A. (2000). Language, structure and agency: What can realist social theory offer to sociolinguistics? Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4(1), 3-20. Castles, S. (2000). International migration at the beginning of the twenty-first century: global trends and issues. International Social Science Journal, 52(165), 269-281. Chipongian, L. C. (2007, February 16). OFW remittances hit $12.8 B in 2006. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.mb.com.ph/BSNS2007021687228.html. Choy, C. C. (2003). Empire of care: nursing and migration in Filipino American history. Durham: Duke University Press. Churchill, B. R. (2003). Education in the Philippines at the turn of the 20th century: background for American policy. In C. D. Villareal (Ed.), Back to the future: perspectives on the Thomasite legacy to Philippine education (pp. 21-52). Manila: American Studies Association of the Philippines. Collins, J., & Slembrouck, S. (2005). Multilingualism and diasporic populations: Spatializing practices, institutional processes, and social hierarchies. Language & Communication, pp. 189-195. Constable, N. (1997). Maid to order in Hong Kong: Stories of Filipina workers. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Constantino, R. (2002). The miseducation of the Filipino. In A. V. Shaw & L. H. Francia (Eds.), Vestiges of war: the Philippine-American war and the aftermath of an imperial dream 1899-1999 (pp. 177-192). New York: New York University Press. Coupland, N. (2003). Introduction: Sociolinguistics and globalisation. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 465-472. Cruz, N. H. (2003, February). Gun ban, return-to-English policies hailed. Philippine Daily Inquirer, p. A8. Dalangin-Fernandez, L. (2006, August). Arroyo: Philippines to send 'super maids' abroad soon. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/news/view_article.php?article_id =13304. Davies, B., & Harré, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20(1), 43-63. Bibliography 251 De Fina, A. (2003). Identity in Narrative: A study of immigrant discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. de Leon, M., & Ager, M. (2003, 31 January). Bilingualism at fault, says Sec. de Jesus. The Manila Times, pp. A1-A2. Dee, I. (2003a, February 4). Ateneo, UP teachers want English abolished. Manila Standard, p. 2. Dee, I. (2003b). Teachers: What for English? Manila Standard, pp. 1-2. Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). (2005). Remittances of OFWs contribute 9.2 percent to country’s GNP. Retrieved August 27, 2005, from http://www.dole.gov.ph/news. Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). (2007, 12 February). Gov't debunks issues concocted by vested interest groups vs. standards to prevent abuses on HSWs. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.dole.gov.ph/news. DepEd awaits EO on English. (2003, February 5). Manila Standard, p. 2. el-Ojeili, C., & Hayden, P. (2006). Critical theories of globalization. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. England, K., & Stiell, B. (1997). 'They think you're as stupid as your English is': Constructing foreign domestic workers in Toronto. Environment & Planning A, 29(2), 195-215. English rebirth seen boosting total learning process. (2006). Retrieved December 18, 2006. Fairclough, N. (2006). Language and globalization. London and New York: Routledge. Faist, T. (2000). The volume and dynamics of international migration and transnational social spaces. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Filipinos’ English skills on the decline. (2003, October 23). Manila Times. Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality (1st American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison. New York: Vintage Books. Foucault, M. (1983). The subject and power. In H. L. Dreyfus & P. Rabinow (Eds.), Michel Foucault, beyond structuralism and hermeneutics (2nd ed., pp. 208-226). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. FUSE hails GMA directive on using English in schools (2003, January 31). Malaya, p. 7. Garcia, S. (2003, February 6). Let the profs 'balagtasan'. The Manila Times, p. A7. Giddens, A. (1986). Central problems in social theory: action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. GMA restores English as medium of instruction. (2003, February). Philippine Star. GMA’s ‘back to English’ thrust gains support. (2003, January 31). Philippine Daily Inquirer, p. 22. Bibliography 252 Gonzalez, A. (1980). Language and nationalism: the Philippine experience thus far. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Gonzalez, A. (1985). The legacy of American higher education in the Philippines: an assessment. In P. G. Altbach (Ed.), An ASEANAmerican dialogue: the relevance of American higher education in Southeast Asia (pp. 91-110). Singapore: Regional Institute of Higher Education and Development. Gonzalez, A. (1988). The role of English and its maintenance in the Philippines: the transcript, consensus, and papers of the Solidarity Seminar on Language and Development. Manila, Philippines: Solidaridad Publishing House. Gonzalez, A. (1998). The language planning situation in the Philippines Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 19(5/6), 481525. Gonzalez, A. (2004). The social dimensions of Philippine English. World Englishes, 23(1), 7-16. Gonzalez, J. L. (1998). Philippine labour migration: critical dimensions of public policy. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goss, J., & Lindquist, B. (1995). Conceptualizing international labor migration: A structuration perspective. International Migration Review, 29(2), 317-351. Grin, F. (1996). Economic approaches to language and language planning: an introduction. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 121, 1-16. Grin, F. (1997). The economics of language planning. In R. B. Kaplan & R. B. Baldauf (Eds.), Language planning: from practice to theory (pp. 153192). Clevedon; Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Grin, F. (2003). Language planning and economics. Current Issues in Language Planning, 4(1), 1-66. Guarnizo, L., & Smith, M. P. (1998). The locations of transnationalism. In M. P. Smith & L. Guarnizo (Eds.), Transnationalism from below (pp. 334). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. Guevarra, A. R. (2003). Manufacturing the ‘ideal’ workforce: The transnational labor brokering of nurses and domestic workers from the Philippines. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco. Haeri, N. (1997). The reproduction of symbolic capital: language, state, and class in Egypt. Current Anthropology, 38(5), 795-816. Hau, C. S., & Tinio, V. L. (2003). Language policy and ethnic relations in the Philippines. In M. E. Brown & S. Ganguly (Eds.), Fighting words: language policy and ethnic relations in Asia (pp. 319-349). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Heller, M. (2001a). Critique and sociolinguistic analysis of discourse. Critique of Anthropology, 21(2), 117-141. Heller, M. (2001b). Undoing the macro/micro dichotomy: ideology and categorisation in a linguistic minority school. In N. Coupland, S. Bibliography 253 Sarangi & C. Candlin (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and Social Theory (pp. 212-234). Harlow, England; London: Longman. Heller, M. (2002). Globalization and the commodification of bilingualism in Canada. In D. Cameron & D. Block (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 47-64). London and New York: Routledge. Heller, M. (2003). Globalization, the new economy, and the commodification of language and identity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 473-492. Holborrow, M. (1999). The politics of English: A Marxist view of language. London: Sage Publications. Hoogvelt, A. M. M. (2001). Globalization and the postcolonial world: the new political economy of development (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave. House, J. (2003). English as a lingua franca: a threat to multilingualism? Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 556-578. Huang, S., Yeoh, B. S. A., & Abdul Rahman, N. (Eds.). (2005). Asian women as transnational domestic workers. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Hugo, G. (2003). Migration and development: a perspective from Asia. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. Hymes, D. H. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics: an ethnographic approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. International Organization for Migration. (2003). World migration 2003: managing migration challenges and responses for people on the move. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration. International Organization for Migration. (2005). World migration 2005: costs and benefits of international migration. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. IT outsourcing seen to boost jobs, economy. (2003). Retrieved May 29, 2003, from http://ph.jobstreet.com/career/jobs123/ind3.htm. Jenkins, R. (2002). Pierre Bourdieu (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. Jobstreet.com. (2003). Call centers - RP's emerging sunshine industry. Retrieved May 29, 2003, from http://ph.jobstreet.com/jobs123/ind1.htm. Kabiling, G. (2003, 30 January). English is primary teaching language. Manila Bulletin, pp. 1, 4. Kachru, B. B. (1986). The alchemy of English: the spread, functions and models of non-native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kanlungan Center Foundation, I. (1999). Fast facts on Filipino labor migration. Quezon City: Kanlungan Center Foundation, Inc. Kearney, M. (1995). The local and the global: The anthropology of globalization and transnationalism. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24(1), 547-565. Koven, M. l. (2004). Transnational perspectives on sociolinguistic capital among Luso-Descendants in France and Portugal. American Ethnologist, 31(2), 270-290. Lamont, M., & Fournier, M. (1992). Cultivating differences: symbolic boundaries and the making of inequality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bibliography 254 Lamont, M., & Molnar, V. (2002). The study of boundaries in the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology, 28(1), 167-195. Lan, P. C. (2003). 'They have more money but I speak better English!' Transnational encounters between Filipina domestics and Taiwanese employers. Identities, 10(2), 133-161. Le Page, R. B., & Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Lechner, F. J., & Boli, J. (Eds.). (2000). The globalization reader. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Levitt, P., & Glick Schiller, N. (2003). Transnational perspectives on migration: conceptualizing simultaneity. Unpublished work in progress. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Loh, J. (2006, August 21). Are maids here to work as maids or as clerks? The Straits Times. Lorente, B. P. (1997). The Inappropriate Other(s) in selected GUMIL-Hawaii contemporary fiction, 1977-1993. Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City. Lorente, B. P. (2002). When "madam" is "madonna" and "servant" is "auntie": forms of address and reference as emblems of resistance and identity among Filipino domestic workers in Singapore. Paper presented at the Sociolinguistics Symposium 14. Lorente, B. P., & Tupas, T. R. F. (2002). Demythologizing English as an economic asset: the case of Filipina domestic workers in Singapore. The ACELT Journal, 6(2), 20-32. Loveband, A. (2006). Positioning the product: Indonesian migrant women workers in Taiwan. In K. Hewinson & K. Young (Eds.), Transnational migration and work in Asia (pp. 75-89). Abingdon: Routledge. Magno, A. (2003, 11 February). A mountain of a problem. Manila Standard, p. 14. McIndoe, A. (2006, 29 April). Standards of English falling in the Philippines. The Straits Times, p. 28. McKay, D. (2005). Success stories? Filipina migrant workers in Canada. In S. Huang, B. S. A. Yeoh & N. Abdul Rahman (Eds.), Asian women as transnational domestic workers (pp. 305-340). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. McNay, L. (2003). Out of the orrery? Situating language. Journal of Political Ideologies, 8(2), 139-156. Migrants' remittances. (2006, 25 November). The Economist, p. 114. More rallies vs hiring policy for Pinoy DH. (2007). Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.gmanews.tv/story/27059/More-rallies-vshiring-policy-for-Pinoy-DH. Morrison, K., & Lui, I. (2000). Ideology, linguistic capital and the medium of instruction in Hong Kong. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 21(6), 471 - 486. Bibliography 255 Mustafa, N. (2003, February). Back to the future. Philippine Daily Inquirer, p. A9. National Statistical Office. (2005). Stock estimate of overseas Filipinos. Retrieved 18 February 2007, from http://www.nso.gov.ph. Nederveen Pieterse, J. (2004). Globalization and culture: global melange. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: gender, ethnicity and educational change. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Pakir, A. (1999). Connecting with English in the context of internationalisation. TESOL Quarterly, 33(1), 103-113. Pakir, A. (2003a). Medium-of-Instruction Policy in Singapore. In J. W. Tollefson & A. Tsui (Eds.), Medium of instruction policies: Which agenda? Whose agenda? (pp. 117-134). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. Pakir, A. (2003b). Which English? The Nativization of English and the Negotiations of Language Choice in Southeast Asia Anglophone Cultures in Southeast Asia. In R. Ahrens, D. Parker, K. Stierstorfer & K. K. Tam (Eds.), Anglophone Cultures in Southeast Asia (pp. 73-84). Germany: University of Heidelberg Press. Parreñas, R. S. (2000). Migrant Filipina domestic workers and the international division of reproductive labor. Gender and Society, 14(4), 560-580. Parreñas, R. S. (2001). Servants of globalization: women, migration, and domestic work. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. Pavlenko, A., & Blackledge, A. (2004a). Introduction: New theoretical approaches to the study of negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts. In A. Pavlenko & A. Blackledge (Eds.), Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts (pp. 1-33). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Pavlenko, A., & Blackledge, A. (Eds.). (2004b). Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts (1st ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. Harlow: Longman Pennycook, A. (1998). English and the discourses of colonialism. London: Routledge. Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics: a critical introduction. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Pennycook, A. (2003). Global Englishes, Rip Slyme, and performativity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 513-533. Pennycook, A. (2005). Teaching with the flow: fixity and fluidity in education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25(1), 29-43. Pennycook, A. (2007a). Global English and transcultural flows. London: Routledge. Bibliography 256 Pennycook, A. (2007b). The myth of English as an international language. In S. Makoni & A. Pennycook (Eds.), Disinventing and reconstituting languages (pp. 90-115). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Perez, A. E., & Patacsil, P. C. (1998). Philippine migration studies: an annotated bibliography: Philippine Migration Research Network. Perrons, D. (2004). Globalization and social change: people and places in a divided world. London and New York: Routledge. Philippine consulate general in Saipan offers English training seminars. (2002). Retrieved May 17, 2002, from http://www.dfa.gov.ph/news/pr/pr2002/may/pr82.htm. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration. (2005). Deployment of Overseas Filipino Workers, 1984-2002. Retrieved September 8, 2005, from http://www.poea.gov.ph. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration. (2006a). Annual Report 2005. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from www.poea.gov.ph. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration. (2006b). OFW global presence: a compendium of overseas employment statistics 2005. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://www.poea.gov.ph. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration. (2006c). POEA advisory: recruitment and deployment of Filipino household service workers. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://www.poea.gov.ph/hsw/hsw_advisory1.html. The Philippines fights for US business. (2003, May 22). Forbes. Porcalla, D. (2006, September 21). House OKs bill mandating use of English as medium of instruction. Philippine Star. Pratt, G. (1997). Stereotypes and ambivalence: The construction of domestic workers in Vancouver, British Columbia. Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 4(2), 159-177. Pratt, G. (1999). From registered nurse to registered nanny: discursive geographies of Filipina domestic workers in Vancouver, B.C. Economic Geography, 75(3), 215-236. Quismundo, T. (2004, September 1). ‘English-only zones’ set in Manila. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Rahman, N. A. (2003). Negotiating power: a case study of Indonesian foreign domestic workers (FDWs) in Singapore. Unpublished Thesis (Ph.D.), Curtin University of Technology. Rahman, N. A., Yeoh, B. S. A., & Huang, S. (2005). Dignity overdue: transnational domestic workers in Singapore. In S. Huang, B. S. A. Yeoh & N. A. Rahman (Eds.), Asian women as transnational domestic workers (pp. 233-261). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. London: Longman. Rampton, B. (1999). Styling the Other: Introduction. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 3(4), 421-427. Rosario, B. R. (2005, September 27). Bill on English as medium in schools endorsed. Manila Bulletin. Bibliography 257 RP gets serious on outsourcing biz (2003). Retrieved February 26, 2003, from http://www.mctimes.net/2003/New/news_20030226. RP workforce losing edge in English. (2004, May 3). Philippine Daily Inquirer. Rushdie, S. (1991). Imaginary homelands: essay and criticism 1981-91. London: Granta Books. Sassen, S. (1988). The mobility of labor and capital: a study in international investment and labor flow. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Sassen, S. (1996). Losing Control? Sovereignity in an age of globalization. New York: Columbia University Press. Scarcella, R., & Brunak, J. (1981). On speaking politely in a second language. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 27, 59-75. Scott, J. C. (1990). Domination and the arts of resistance: hidden transcripts. New Haven: Yale University Press. Senators agree to push English, decentralize Deped. (2006). Balita. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://news.balita.ph/html/article.php/20061216123745369. Sibayan, B. P., & Gonzalez, A. B. (1996). Post-imperial English in the Philippines. In J. A. Fishman, A. W. Conrad & A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.), Post-imperial English: status change in former British and American colonies, 1940-1990 (pp. 139-172). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sibayan, B. P., & Segovia, L. Z. (1984). Language, identity and socioeconomic development. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Smith, M. P., & Guarnizo, L. (1998). The locations of transnationalism. In M. P. Smith & L. Guarnizo (Eds.), Transnationalism from below (pp. 334). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. Stevenson, P., & Mar-Molinero, C. (2006). Language, the national and the transnational in contemporary Europe. In C. Mar-Molinero & P. Stevenson (Eds.), Language ideologies, policies and practices: language and the future of Europe (pp. 1-12). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Stroud, C. (2002). Framing Bourdieu socioculturally: alternative forms of linguistic legitimacy in postcolonial Mozambique. Multilingua, 21, 247-273. Superpay for supermaids. (2007, 25 January). The Manila Times, p. A4. Takaki, R. T. (1998). Strangers from a different shore: a history of Asian Americans (Updated and rev. ed.). Boston: Little Brown. Talking Points. (2003, February). Manila Standard, p. 13. Tan, J. (2006, August 29). Written English test to raise quality of maids. The Straits Times, p. H6. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). (2006). Competency Based Curriculum Exemplar: Household Services NC II. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://www.tesda.gov.ph. Bibliography 258 Thompson, J. B. (1991). Editor's introduction. In J. B. Thompson (Ed.), Language and symbolic power (pp. 1-31). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Toh, S., & Floresca, C., V. (2003). Globalization and the Philippines' education system. In K. H. Mok & A. R. Welch (Eds.), Globalization and educational restructuring in the Asia Pacific region (pp. 189-231). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Tollefson, J. W. (1991). Planning language, planning inequality: language policy in the community. Londo: Longman. Tupas, T. R. F. (2001a). Linguistic imperialism in the Philippines: reflections of an English language teacher of Filipino overseas workers. The AsiaPacific Researcher, 10(1), 1-40. Tupas, T. R. F. (2001b). The study of English and the problem of consciousness in the Philippines. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Tupas, T. R. F. (2003). History, language planners, and strategies of forgetting. Language Problems & Language Planning, 27(1), 1-25. Tupas, T. R. F. (2004a). Anatomies of linguistic commodification: the case of English in the Philippines vis-à-vis other languages in the multilingual marketplace. Paper presented at the Singapore Association of Applied Linguistics Symposium on 'The Mother Tongue Issue in Multilingual Communities'. Tupas, T. R. F. (2004b). Back to class: The medium of instruction debate in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Language, Nation and Development in Southeast Asia Roundtable. Tupas, T. R. F. (2006). Standard Englishes, pedagogical paradigms and their conditions of (im)possibility. In R. Rubdy & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world: global rules, global roles (pp. 169-185). London and New York: Continuum. Tyner, J. A. (1999). The Web-based recruitment of female foreign domestic workers in Asia. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 20(2), 193-209. Tyner, J. A. (2000). Migrant labour and the politics of scale: gendering the Philippine state. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 41(2), 131-154. Tyner, J. A. (2004). Made in the Philippines: gendered discourses and the making of migrants. London: RoutledgeCurzon. Urciuoli, B. (1995). Language and borders. Annual Review of Anthropology 24, 525-546. Urciuoli, B. (1996). Exposing prejudice: Puerto Rican experiences of language, race, and class. Boulder: Westview Press. US firms shifting call center operations to RP. (2003). Retrieved April 17, 2003, from www.inq7.net. Vertovec, S. (1999). Conceiving and researching transnationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 447-462. Vertovec, S. (2001). Transnationalism and identity. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 27(4), 573-582. Bibliography 259 Wacquant, L. D. (1989). Towards a reflexive sociology: a workshop with Pierre Bourdieu. Sociological Theory(7). Wallerstein, I. (2000). The rise and future demise of the world capitalist system. In F. Lechner & J. Boli (Eds.), The globalization reader (pp. 57-63). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Wallerstein, I. (2004). World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Wee, L. (2003). Linguistic instrumentalism in Singapore. Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, 24(3), 211-224. Wee, L. (2005). Intra-language discrimination and linguistic human rights: the case of Singlish. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 48-69. Wehrfritz, G., & Vitug, M. (2004). Philippines: Workers for the world. Newsweek. Weix, G. G. (2000). Inside the home and outside the family: the domestic estrangement of Javanese servants. In K. M. Adams & S. Dickey (Eds.), Home and hegemony: domestic service and identity politics in South and Southeast Asia (pp. 137-156). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Wong, D. (1996). Foreign domestic workers in Singapore. In G. Battistella & A. Paganoni (Eds.), Asian women in migration (pp. 87-108). Quezon City: Scalabrini Migration Center. Woolard, K. A. (1985). Language variation and cultural hegemony: toward an integration of sociolinguistic and social theory. American Ethnologist, 12(4), 738 - 748. Xiang, B. (2005). The fixed and the fluid. Paper presented at the Migration Cluster Seminar, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 27 July. Yeoh, B. S. A., & Huang, S. (1998a). Maids and ma'ams in Singapore: constructing gender and nationality in the transnationalization of paid domestic work. Geography Research Forum, 18, 21-48. Yeoh, B. S. A., & Huang, S. (1998b). Negotiating public space: strategies and styles of migrant female domestic workers in Singapore. Urban Studies, 35(3), 583-602. Yeoh, B. S. A., & Huang, S. (1999). Singapore women and foreign domestic workers: negotiating domestic work and motherhood. In J. H. Momsen (Ed.), Gender, migration, and domestic service (pp. 277-300). London: Routledge. Yeoh, B. S. A., Huang, S., & Gonzalez, J. (1999). Migrant female domestic workers: Debating the economic, social and political impacts in Singapore. International Migration Review, 33(1), 114-136. Yeoh, B. S. A., Huang, S., & Rahman, N. A. (2005). Asian women as transnational domestic workers. In S. Huang, B. S. A. Yeoh & N. A. Rahman (Eds.), Asian women as transnational domestic workers (pp. 1-20). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic. Yeoh, B. S. A., Piper, N., Shen, H. H., & Lorente, B. P. (2005). Introduction. In B. P. Lorente, N. Piper, H. H. Shen & B. S. A. Yeoh (Eds.), Asian Bibliography 260 migrations: sojourning, displacement, homecoming and other travels (pp. 1-6). Singapore: Singapore University Press. Yeoh, B. S. A., Willis, K. D., & Khader Fakhri, S. M. A. (2003). Transnational edges. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26(2), 207-217. Yukawa, J. (1996). Migration from the Philippines, 1975-1995: an annotated bibliography (1st ed.). Quezon City, Philippines: Scalabrini Migration Center & Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli. [...]... are we to contextualize these voices in English in the inequalities of the world system? What are the conditions of possibility that shape their voice? These are some of the questions this study explores The case study: English- speaking Filipino domestic workers in Singapore To develop the aforementioned themes, this study draws from the case of FDWs in Singapore Migrant Filipino women have come to... trajectories of the FDWs’ English Chapter 7 centers on how FDWs define and mobilize the symbolic values of “good English In Chapter 8, I revisit the main themes that underpin this study and point to further research 2 Linguistic Capital in Transnational Arenas In this chapter, I lay out the theoretical framework that informs how I contextualize English linguistic capital in the case of FDWs in Singapore. .. examine how centering institutions, namely the Philippine state and the maid agencies in Singapore appropriate English to construct the identities and index the social positions of FDWs I also look at how FDWs in Singapore themselves appropriate English in their acts of English identification Relevance of the study This study contributes to three main areas of inquiry: (1) language and migration in the. .. from the Philippines in general, and FDWs in Singapore in particular Outline of the study In the next chapter, I discuss the theoretical underpinnings of the study I describe my data collection methods in Chapter 3 Chapters 4 to 7 discuss different dimensions of the case study In Chapters 4 and 5, I analyze Chapter 1 16 centering institutions at the macro-level Chapter 4 focuses on how the Philippine... varieties there may be of this thing called English, but rather what kind of mobilizations underlie acts of English use or learning (Pennycook, 2007b, p 171) Finally, this study contributes a sociolinguistic perspective to the already rich literature on the Filipino diaspora There is a dearth of sociolinguistic studies on the Filipino diaspora despite there being more than eight million Filipinos overseas... into contact in the transnational field of domestic work would need to be considered In the case of the letter writer and Myrna, this would mean, among other things, examining the mechanisms of and processes involved in the labor flows between the Philippines and Singapore, two Southeast Asian countries in contrasting stages of development, two postcolonial states that had and that continue to have... children who, presumably, would be in the process of acquiring and learning English at home and in school The FDWs competence in English is striking because this would mean that they, a marginalized social group, possess linguistic capital that is central in the world system and highly valuable in the linguistic economy of Singapore Research questions In this light, the research questions which this... was how they deployed “straight English , i.e “unmixed English , during arguments with Singlish-speaking employers; this mobilization of “straight English seemed to have the effect of silencing employers, rendering them unable to continue scolding or shouting at the FDW In using linguistic capital, i.e “straight English , the FDW is evoking, if not wealth then authority She temporarily subverts the asymmetrical... particularly in the case of Filipino domestic workers (FDWs) in Singapore Threading through this study are three interrelated themes: the centrality of language as a resource for and a site of symbolic struggles, the structural inequalities of the world system and the conditioned agency of language users Firstly, as observed by Heller (2001a), “language is both a key domain of struggle over difference and inequality,... and Singapore, and the oilrich countries in the Middle East.7 FDWs are transmigrants and their travels are marked by multiple departures, returns and detours A migrant Filipino 7 Filipino women are not the only transnational domestic workers There are also increasing numbers of transnational Indonesian domestic workers in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan Transnational Sri Lankan domestic . Agencies in Singapore 120 Positioning English- speaking products 129 Representations of Filipino domestic workers in Singapore 129 The relative values of English linguistic capital 135 Styling the. about the competitiveness of its migrant workers; (2) maid agencies in Singapore, in their script of servitude for Filipino domestic workers; and (3) the Filipino domestic workers in Singapore in. from the case of Filipino domestic workers in Singapore. The case presents a unique opportunity to explore how the inequalities of the world system and the acts of English identification of individuals