CHAPTER METAPHORS IN AMERICAN MEDIA DISCOURSE: NEW YORK TIMES & WASHINGTON POST 4.1 Introduction: Metaphorical Evaluation in American Media Discourse Thompson and Hunston (2000) define “evaluation” as an overarching term of reference for the text producer’s “stance towards, viewpoint on, or feelings about the entities or propositions that he or she is talking about” (p.5). This attitude specifically refers to sets of values that encompass notions of “certainty or obligation or desirability”. The idea of evaluation itself is significant as it is seen as the lens through which the world is looked upon, or in other words, a device for interpreting what is perceived and defining what is transmitted to others. Bednarek (2006) goes a step further to claim that these “short term evaluations” eventually become “long-term values which are as important to our lives as our beliefs” (p.4). The concept of evaluation is key as the main aim of this thesis is to examine the range of metaphors framing the Gulf of Mexico oil spill from large representative corpora of selected British and American broadsheets. This is significant as the evaluations and metaphors generated in these popular mainstream broadsheets aid the reader in organising the events and the roles of the various actors when taken in aggregate. The IICM will be used as the theoretical framework to mine the relevant metaphors inductively and empirically, through the use of two leading concordancing programmes as springboards for the analysis - WMatrix and 133 Sketch Engine. It is important to note that while the range of metaphors obtained from these 250 articles per broadsheet might not be wholly encompassing, I believe that this preliminary aggregate metaphorical analysis done via the IICM-framework surfaces the relevant core evaluative trends pertaining to the issue under study. Van Dijk (1988b, p.140) states that news is “read and understood in social situations featuring norms, values, goals and interests that are socially shared”. News is seen as a type of written discourse that is controlled by a predetermined range of possible topics for news discourse. These categories include national politics, international politics, violence, disasters, sports, art, science and human interest. In the case of the BP Oil Spill, the national and international dimensions of the disaster are brought to the fore due to the potentially explosive socio-political context where a British-based company’s negligence has resulted in widespread economic and ecological damage to America, an established international ally. This simply means that the potentially ethno-centric dimension of the conflict will be foregrounded as the news values (e.g. the shared negativity, recency, proximity, unambiguity, unexpectedness, relevance, superlativeness and facticity of the event) serve to colour the entire catastrophe in an emotionally charged backdrop (Bell, 1991). The metaphorical portrayals of key players in the BP oil spill (and their resultant evaluations) in this thesis will be examined within this socio-political backdrop in a comparative approach. 134 4.2 Utilising the IICM: Phase One – Identifying the candidate USAS Categories/ Lexical Items for Analysis The IICM advocates an empirical and inductive approach to the analysis of lexical items in a large corpus. This methodology aims to triangulate and potentially either reinforce or provide an alternative view to the findings of traditional metaphor discourse research that mainly relied on the intuitive pre-selection of researcher-determined search strings as a springboard for metaphorical analysis. This is achieved by running the NYT and WP corpora through WMatrix for a preliminary overview of the range of semantic categories that are statistically significant in relation to the BNC-Informative Writing sampler. The range of top-10 statistically salient semantic domains is captured in Figures 4.1-4.2 respectively. Fig. 4.1 USAS Semantic Tagset (A snapshot of the Top-10 semantic domains for the NYT-Corpus) Fig. 4.2 USAS Semantic Tagset (A snapshot of the Top-10 semantic domains for the WP-Corpus) For the purpose of explicating the IICM-framework, we will be analysing the following USAS semantic categories that are empirically suggested by 135 WMatrix and are comparatively salient across both corpora. The four empirically suggested USAS domains for further analysis are shown in the list below. The corpus and the accompanying rank within the semantic domain are captured in the accompanying brackets after the semantic domains. 1. Substances & Materials: Liquid (NYT_1/WP_1) 2. Speech: Communicative (NYT_2/WP_2) 3. Damaging and Destroying (NYT_5/WP_5) 4. Green Issues (NYT_11/WP_7) It is important to note that while WMatrix provides an empirical suggestion pertaining to the possible conceptual domains for further analysis, the core factor of analyst judgment remains necessary – especially in the selection of domains and the specific lexical items in the broad-list for further metaphorical analysis. However, this explicit commitment to empirical evidence as a common starting point for the subsequent extrapolation of conceptual metaphors will enable other researchers to base their disagreements on the same theoretical platform with respect to the same set of evidence, thus potentially resulting in increased methodological uniformity in the metaphor analysis procedure. This also further facilitates the ensuing discussions on the findings in the target discourse. 136 4.3 The American Perspective: An overview of significant metaphor types and the interaction of metaphor categories in the NYTCorpus and the WP-Corpus According to PEJ (2010), the narrative in the American press focused on BP’s culpability and agency in the lead-up to the catastrophic spill as well as the way its executives responded to the aftermath. BP’s lack of remorse (as demonstrated by its lack of transparency in its estimates of the damage), the many public-relations gaffes of its then-CEO, Tony Hayward, as well as its inadequate immediate response to the needs of the Gulf residents accounted for most of the negative media coverage. Other economic and legal repercussions as a result of these measures included a 50% loss in value of BP shares, the initiation of possible criminal and civil charges against BP pertaining to the spill, the resignation of Tony Hayward as BP’s chief executive and the promotion of his subsequent replacement, American Robert Dudley. For this analysis, the focus will be placed on the linguistic choices and patterns utilised by the selected broadsheets, devoting attention specifically to the evaluative connotations and the implications of salient metaphorical expressions. This is significant as the choice of these mainstream broadsheets, with pronounced liberal or conservative leanings, influences a broad aggregate spectrum of opinions embodied by the range of identified conceptual metaphors. Thus, these broadsheets are chosen as a representative sample of the popular mainstream press in an attempt to delineate the overall editorial perspectives. 137 4.3.1. The American Perspective: An aggregate view of significant metaphors in the NYT-Corpus and the WP-Corpus Table 4.1 provides an aggregate view of the issue metaphorically embodied by the NYT-corpus and the WP-corpus. All the conceptual metaphors were identified and formulated using the IICM. Table 4.1 An aggregate internal comparison of significant metaphors in American Broadsheets (NYT & WP) Key Target Domains NYT WP (Types/ Tokens) (Types/ Tokens) THE OIL SPILL WAR/ CRIME/CONFLICT BP/ OIL INDUSTRY DEBTOR/CRIMINAL / ENEMY/INCOMPETENCE/ PRAGMATIC OPPORTUNIST/RECKLESS/ OUTDATED/ GREEDY/ (PERSONIFICATION: NEGATIVE) BP/ OIL INDUSTRY FIGHTER/ CONTRITE CHILD/ SCAPEGOAT/ ENTREPRENEUR/ PHILANTHROPIST/ COSMOPOLITAN ENTITY/ INVITED GUEST/ ACQUITTED DEFENDANT/VICTIM/PREY (PERSONIFICATION: POSITIVE) THE US GOVERNMENT/ OBAMA ADMINISTRATION CRIMINAL/ INCOMPETENT (PERSONIFICATION: NEGATIVE) THE US GOVERNMENT/ OBAMA ADMINISTRATION COMPETENT LEADER/ EFFECTIVE LAW ENFORCER (PERSONIFICATION: POSITIVE) 56.1% 54.9% 54.1% 53.6% 25.6% 31.9% 21.1% 22.8% 10.6% 10.4% 14.4% 16.2% 21.8% 21.4% 16.5% 15.4% 13.9% 7.5% 10.1% 10.4% These aggregate findings uncover a range of interesting ideological differences. The NYT-corpus couches most of its metaphors in the CONFLICT scenario, with the metaphors of WAR, CRIME and THREAT taking on a significant 56.1% of the entire range of 51 identified metaphor types for the selected node words. On the other hand, the WP-corpus embodies the more conservative, pro-business view with the CONFLICT scenario making a comparable majority of 54.1% of the total number of 55 metaphor types. This is due to the predominant reference to BUSINESS and POLITICS as WAR or as a GAME OF STRATEGY in the WP-corpus. Taken at face value, these statistics seemingly contradict the corresponding metaphorical portrayal of the key 138 figures in the oil spill. In the NYT-corpus, BP is portrayed as the primary antagonist with 31.9% of the total number of metaphors tokens presenting BP in a negative, non-sympathetic light as a CRIMINAL, ENEMY, RECKLESS PERSON, UNSCRUPULOUS BUSINESSMAN, MISBEHAVING CHILD, UNTRUSTWORTHY INCOMPETENT PERSON, or UNACCOUNTABLE PERSON. Only 10.4% of the total number of metaphors in the NYT-corpus portray BP in a sympathetic view as a VICTIM OF PARTISAN POLICIES, a COMPETENT PROBLEM SOLVER or a RESPONSIBLE CORPORATE CITIZEN. This preliminary pattern seems to indicate a more nationalistic editorial stance adopted by the NYT-corpus – as most instances of the WAR/CRIME/THREAT conceptual key make a direct antagonistic reference to BP. This is in contrast to the WPcorpus where BP’s agency in the spill is hedged by the overarching reference to BUSINESS and POLITICS as a WAR/GAME OF STRATEGY that necessitates a certain degree of political and social compromise, underscored by rational cost-benefit analysis, rather than in direct reference to BP’s culpability. As mentioned earlier, the data sample seems to indicate that the WPcorpus advocates a more balanced view of BP with a non-sympathetic portrayal taking up a significantly lower 22.8% of the identified metaphors and a sympathetic portrayal of BP taking up a more significant 16.2%. This seems to indicate that the pro-business range of pragmatic sentiments takes prominence in the WP-corpus. Understandably, both broadsheets portray the various branches of the US Government/Obama Administration in a negative light – with the main difference embodied by the NYT-corpus - where there is an additional negative attribution of current policies and government machinations to the previous Bush administration. I will now proceed to 139 analyse some significant metaphorical patterns and embodiments in accordance to the metaphor classifications. 4.3.2. The American Perspective: An analysis of the interaction of metaphor categories in the NYT-Corpus and the WP-Corpus The identified metaphors are divided into four categories. The first three categories are derived from Lakoff & Johnson’s (1980) seminal work, comprising Structural Metaphors, Ontological Metaphors and Orientational/Spatial Metaphors. The final category is Image/Analogybased Metaphors (Gibbs, 1999; Lakoff, 1992). Taken in tandem, these four categories of metaphors cover the full spectrum of metaphors in the target discourse. The statistical distribution of these metaphor categories across both corpora is captured in Tables 4.2-4.3 below. Table 4.2 An overview of the Metaphor Type Distribution in NYT NYT-Corpus (158 Types out of 291, 566 words) Metaphor Types Types Distribution (%) Structural Metaphors 18 11.4% Ontological Metaphors 114 72.2% Orientational Metaphors 3.8% Analogy-Based/Image Metaphors 20 12.7% Table 4.3 An overview of the Metaphor Type Distribution in WP WP-Corpus (164 Types out of 293, 519 words) Metaphor Types Types Distribution (%) Structural Metaphors 19 11.6% Ontological Metaphors 112 68.3% Orientational Metaphors 22 3.0% Analogy-Based/Image Metaphors 13 13.4% It is interesting to note that the NYT-corpus and the WP-corpus have comparable metaphorical densities. The NYT-corpus has a marginally lower 140 metaphorical density of 158 metaphor types out of 291, 566 words whilst the WP-corpus contains 164 metaphor types out of a slightly larger base of 293, 519 words. Much like Semino’s (2002) study on the metaphorical representations of the euro in British and Italian newspapers, this seems to indicate a fundamental similarity in metaphorical usage between the two American broadsheets. This can also be attributed to the “mutual influences between reports” due to the extensive scope of the disaster. In line with our commitment to empirical salience, this analysis will be structured mainly in accordance to three of the more statistically significant categories, namely Ontological Metaphors, Structural Metaphors and Analogy-Based/Image Metaphors. According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980, p.25) & Kovecses (2002, p.37), ontological metaphors provide much less cognitive structuring for concepts than structural metaphors but they assign a tactile link to objects and substances for conceptual concretization. A prominent sub-type falling into this category would be that of Personification Metaphors. Lakoff & Johnson (1980, p.34) state that personification “allows us to make sense of phenomena in the world in human terms on the basis of our own motivations, goals and characteristics”, thus making it a powerful explanatory tool to structure abstract concepts to the masses. On the other hand, Gibbs (1999, p.32) defines Image and Analogy-Based Metaphors as those used when mental images or core embodiments from one source of knowledge is mapped onto the target domain, rather than a systematic inter-domain mapping e.g. the reference to an “hourglass figure”. This seems to indicate that only a specific aspect of the source domain is used to structure the target concept rather than that of a 141 structured cognitive mapping. The analysis for this chapter will begin with a focus on Ontological Metaphors as they comprise a significant proportion of the metaphor count in the NYT-corpus (72.2%) and WP-corpus (68.3%) respectively. Structural Metaphors refer to the typical cross-domain metaphors and similes in the traditional form of conceptual metaphor where an abstract concept is understood by the structure of the source concept (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.3; Koveces, 2002, p.37). Taken in tandem, these conceptual metaphors demonstrate their connections to political affiliations and the resultant evaluative stances within the targetted newspaper corpus. Thus, structural metaphors play a significant role in structuring the text-consumer’s world-view when consumed in the aggregate. The IICM framework empirically demonstrates the statistical salience of certain conceptual metaphors found within the selected corpora. These differences are essentially gleaned from the use of “lexical and phraseological units in their sociopragmatic contexts” through the IICM framework (Musolff, 2004, p.9). The specific semantic and potentially metaphoric connotations of the specific lexical and phraseological units are determined through the use of two leading online versions of corpus-based dictionaries, namely the Macmillan Online Dictionary and the Collins Online Dictionary. This forms a core step prior to the formulation of the actual range of conceptual metaphors. This core step essentially reflects the commitment to empirical discourse data as the basis of any elicited claims on the metaphorical concepts that underlie the discourse. The analysis for this chapter will take the following structure: 142 superordinate referent, “Washington”. This is done, presumably to mitigate Obama’s culpability in the catastrophe by foregrounding the Bush administration’s agency instead. This tactic is echoed in the WPcorpus where BP’s agency is concealed by the constant references to the “oil industry”, in an effort to highlight the overarching structural/ analogical metaphor: THE BP OIL SPILL IS AN ACCIDENT. This attribution to nature and misfortune is interestingly countered in the NYT-corpus by the religious allusion to BP and the Bush administration’s actions as an UNHOLY ALLIANCE with an unmistakable bacchanal gloss, foregrounding the culpabilities of these actors respectively. 4.5. The Pre-Eminence of WAR/CRIME/CONFLICT Metaphors in the NYT and WP-Corpus This section comprises the analysis of the most empirically salient semantic domain in the NYT and WP-Corpus (Substances and Materials: Liquid_NYT_1/WP_1: Oil). For the purpose of ensuring statistical validity in this comparative analysis, the four main collocates empirically suggested by Sketch Engine under the “Oil_Modifies” grammatical category will be used for analysis across both broadsheets. There are two competing, overarching structural metaphors in the analysis of both corpora. These differences are clearly demonstrated on Tables 4.5 and 4.6 respectively. 177 Table 4.5 An Overview of the Metaphor Keys/Scenarios/Conceptual Metaphors in NYT (WAR Scenario) Conceptual Key Metaphor Total Total (Scenario) (Types) (Tokens) POLITICS IS WAR BP IS A VICTIM (OF PARTISAN 13 (CONFLICT) POLICIES) BP IS A PERSON IN DANGER THE OIL SPILL IS A THREAT (DANGER /ENEMY/ NATURAL DISASTER THE OIL IS AN ADVANCING ENEMY CLEANING THE OIL SPILL IS WAR THE OIL IS A CRIMINAL TO BE IMPRISONED THE OIL IS A WILD BEAST TO BE CAPTURED THE OIL IS AN ESCAPING PRISONER THE ENVIRONMENT IS THE VICTIM THE ECONOMY IS THE VICTIM BP’S REPUTATION IS A VICTIM THE OIL WELL IS THE ENEMY THE OIL IS A NATURAL DISASTER THE OIL IS A STRONG FORCE THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS A VICTIM THE GULF STATE IS A VICTIM THE OIL SPILL IS A BEAST (*WEREWOLF) 14 37 THE OIL INDUSTRY IS A THREAT (PERSONIFICATION: ENEMY) BUSINESS IS WAR (CONFLICT) THE OIL INDUSTRY IS A POWERFUL ENEMY BP IS A RECKLESS CRIMINAL 15 BP IS PREY RIVAL OIL INDUSTRIES ARE VULTURES BP IS AN OPPORTUNISTIC PRAGMATIST THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN ACCOMPLICE 22 72 TOTAL Table 4.6 An Overview of the Metaphor Keys/Scenarios/Conceptual Metaphors in WP (WAR Scenario) Conceptual Key Metaphor Total Total (Scenario) (Types) (Tokens) POLITICS IS WAR BP IS A VICTIM (OF PARTISAN (CONFLICT) POLICIES) BP IS A VICTIM OF UNFAIR EXPECTATIONS THE OIL IS A THREAT (WAR) THE OIL SPILL IS A FORMIDABLE ENEMY CLEANING THE OIL SPILL IS A WAR THE OIL IS THE ENEMY SMALL BUSINESSES ARE VICTIMS THE ENVIRONMENT IS A MURDER VICTIM CLEANING THE OIL SPILL IS WAR (*an insidious war attacking states) *Structural THE TOWN IS A VICTIM LOUISIANA BUSINESS IS A DYING PERSON THE GULF INDUSTRY IS A VICTIM THE OIL IS A STEALTHY ENEMY THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS A WAR GENERAL 39 POLITICS ISA GAME OF STRATEGY (WAR) THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS A SHREWED POLITICAL TACTICIAN 178 BUSINESS IS WAR (CONFLICT) ACHIEVING AN ECONOMIC SETTLEMENT IS PHYSICAL CONFLICT THE OIL INDUSTRY IS A WAR ZONE THE OIL INDUSTRY IS AN AGGRESSOR BP IS A RECKLESS CRIMINAL THE ENVIRONMENT IS A VICTIM OF EXPLOITATION BUSINESS IS A GAME OF STRATEGY TOTAL 12 15 65 Tables 4.5-4.6 showcase the selection of metaphors that undergird the NYT-corpus and the WP-corpus respectively. While it is clear that the WAR scenario has become a highly conventional metaphor in the lexical field for conflict, it is interesting to note the subtle differences that underlie their ideological representation in the two corpora. The NYT-corpus foregrounds the POLITICS IS WAR/ BUSINESS IS WAR metaphor, with the CONFLICT scenario comprising an overwhelming 54.9% of the structural metaphors in the corpus. Similarly, the WP-corpus foregrounds the CONFLICT scenario with 53.6% of the structural metaphors couched in terms of the WAR metaphor. However, the key difference would lie in the way the twin target domains of POLITICS and BUSINESS are foregrounded with strong pragmatic undertones. This can be seen in the following range of metaphors found within the WP-corpus: • ACHIEVING AN ECONOMIC SETTLEMENT IS PHYSICAL CONFLICT • POLITICS IS A GAME OF STRATEGY • THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS A SHREWED POLITICAL TACTICIAN • BP IS A VICTIM (OF UNFAIR EXPECTATIONS AND PARTISAN POLICIES) • BUSINESS IS A GAME OF STRATEGY • SUCCESS IN BUSINESS IS A RATIONAL COST-BENEFIT CALCULATION THAT REQUIRES SACRIFICE • BUSINESS IS A FIGHT FOR SURVIVAL (SMALL BUSINESSES ARE VICTIMS/ THE GULF INDUSTRY IS A VICTIM) 179 • OIL INDUSTRY IS A WAR ZONE This clear portrayal of BUSINESS and POLITICAL SUCCESS as a GAME OF STRATEGY, FIGHT FOR SURVIVAL CALCULATION or as a RATIONAL COST-BENEFIT comprises a significant proportion of the WAR scenario in the WP-corpus. This is in clear contrast to the CONFLICT metaphors in the NYTcorpus where BP and the oil are plainly portrayed as threats to be eliminated. This clearly reveals the underlying conflicting nuances in the portrayal of the entire tragedy that may not be evident when we experience these articles and ideas on an individual basis. We will further examine the predominance of these portrayals in the following concordances in Texts 4.20 – 4.27. 4.5.1. A detailed analysis of the WAR/CRIME/CONFLICT metaphor keys in the NYT-corpus (Substances and Materials: Liquid_1_NYT: ‘Oil’) Texts 4.20-4.21 foreground the full extent of nationalistic indignation and anti-British sentiment experienced by the victims of the catastrophe on the Gulf: Text 4.20. NYT-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE 180 Text 4.21. NYT-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE The systematicity and pervasiveness of these metaphors can be seen in the way metaphors in the NYT are mentioned within the same CONFLICT scenario. Text 4.20 serves as a salient example where President Obama’s “slow, haphazard response” is alluded to in a derisive manner. This foregrounds the Obama Administration’s perceived incompetence as a WAR GENERAL in organising a coherent response against an external threat. In fact, the reference to Obama being merely on “another campaign trip” underscores the dissatisfaction felt by the gulf citizens with the Obama Administrations efforts to limit the economic and environmental damage while securing their livelihoods. This seems to foreground the Administrations’ self-centered concern with tangential political considerations (such as the winning of electoral votes) rather than on the core issue of defending the interests of the electorate. In fact, the WAR reference is further used to sustain cohesion between differing ideas when it is used as a historical reference to “the British invasion 200 years ago”. This historical reference provides a historical and cultural frame for the subsequent interpretation of the entire oil spill. By couching the discourse in nationalistic terms, the associated economic, pragmatic and diplomatic considerations are effectively concealed. Basing this 181 argument on moral and nationalistic premises rather than on pragmatic grounds effectively casts the foreign antagonist as a “villain” and the local actors as “heroes” or “victims” accordingly (Lakoff, 1991, p.61). This can be seen in the automatic parallel that is drawn linking the BP oil spill with the British Invasion. This has the negative repercussion of hiding the advantages of taking a more measured approach – as the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of Americans as well as the survival of the two other international firms implicated in the oil spill (Houston-based Halliburton and Swiss-based Transocean) are closely tied with that of BP. Text 4.21 portrays the Obama Administration as a COMPETENT LEADER adopting a “confrontational tone” with an external aggressor in an effort to ensure the health of the gulf economy. The reference to the Obama Administration preserving the health of the “national psyche” draws on an extension of the BODY POLITIC metaphor where the state is personified as a VICTIM OF PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL TRAUMA. These systematic and pervasive conceptual frames serve to evoke the notion of WAR and SURVIVAL, galvanising the people into unified action, serving to maintain the interests of the Obama Administration by shifting the media focus onto the foreign aggressor’s actions rather than on the obstacles associated with the cleanup. This is clearly seen in the way the associated parallels in Text 4.21, such as Hurricane Katrina and the Iran Hostage Crisis, serve to highlight the random nature of these incidents as well as the antagonistic actions of the aggressors, concealing the flaws of the government response in the process. This is clearly seen in the way the Obama Administration’s failures in the area of “job 182 creation” and “reforming healthcare law” are simplistically attributed to the distraction arising from BP’s negligence. Text 4.22. NYT-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE Text 4.22 from the NYT-corpus highlights an entirely different aspect of the oil spill. Text 4.22 highlights the effectiveness of the Obama Administration as an EFFECTIVE LAW ENFORCER and evokes the expected moral conclusion where the enemy gets castigated, thus completing the cycle of the cautionary moral fairytale. This is done by the specific allusion to the concrete figures estimating the cost of the relevant damages as compensation to the wronged victims. BP’s status as a criminal and its bleak future prospects are also alluded to by the direct references made to the company’s limited opportunities and the range of punitive measures that it faces as a result of its negligence and recklessness. However, it is vital to note that these metaphors hide the true extent of the negative outcomes arising from the “blind pursuit of justice at all costs”. This is best embodied by the eventual demise of the gulf economy in tandem with the destruction of BP as it is an economy highly dependent on the oil industry. To use an evolutionary metaphor, destroying BP is akin to setting off a chain of catastrophic consequences arising from the US’ 183 undeniable dependence on oil from the Gulf. This once again, highlights the true danger of reinforcing national identities and galvanising political will by merely vilifying the foreign intruder. Text 4.23. NYT-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE Finally, Text 4.23 highlights another prominent ideological slant in the NYT-corpus - a distinctive pro-environmental stance. This reflexive article serves to highlight the culpability of the range of actors involved in the BP Oil Spill, advocating an approach to business that is sustainable. This clearly seen in the indirect metaphorical allusion to deep-sea drilling being a FAUSTIAN BARGAIN. The implicit reference to the oil industry as the devil is juxtaposed clearly with the environment being portrayed as a VICTIM, with groundwater supplies that are “threatened by hydraulic fracturing for oil and natural gas” and oceans and shorelines that are “turned into dead zones”. It is important to note that the clear allusion to the BP oil spill and Chernobyl is a deliberate one where these disasters are man-made rather than random acts of nature that are unpredictable e.g. Hurricane Katrina. Hence, it is clear that the NYT-corpus advocates a view of the BP oil spill that directly castigates the foreign 184 aggressor while touting a brand of justice that serves to reinforce national cohesion in the search for a moralistic brand of justice. 4.5.2. A detailed analysis of the WAR/CRIME/THREAT metaphor keys in the WP-corpus (Substances and Materials: Liquid_1_WP: ‘Oil’) Text 4.24 highlights the pragmatic considerations inherent within the oil industry: Text 4.24 WP-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Spill” in SkE The claim that “there will always be catastrophic oil spills” seems to accept the fact that the wealth and jobs created by the oil industry is an undeniable way of life in the Gulf. Ironically, the blame is shifted to the US government where the lack of foresight and poor legislation is seen to have been a major cause of the catastrophic oil spill. The concept that is foregrounded is one where BUSINESS is both a RATIONAL COST-BENEFIT CALCULATION as well as a GAME OF ADAPTATION. This is clearly seen in the false dichotomy offered in the scenario where “there will always be catastrophic oil spills” – where the choice is given for risky drilling practices to take place either in the Gulf of 185 Mexico (“in which thousands depend for their livelihood”) or in the Arctic (“where there are practically no people”). Thus, the oil industry is portrayed as an CORE CONTRIBUTOR to the American economy that should not be compromised or tampered with. The foregrounding of this pragmatic pro-business strategy is further reinforced in Text 4.25 that goes to the extent of casting BP as a VICTIM OF PARTISAN POLITICS AND UNFAIR PRACTICES that has been denied due process due to the “rush to justice”: Text 4.25 WP-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Industry” in SkE This ‘victimisation’ of BP is also mentioned in tandem with the factual statement that the oil industry “employs hundreds of thousands of people” and “pays billions of dollars in taxes”. This serves to highlight the fact that BP is a RESPONSIBLE CORPORATE CITIZEN and CORE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTOR that plays a significant role for the nation and for the community. This aspect is further highlighted in Text 4.26 where BP’s technological competence and commitment to making restitution to the Gulf economy and businesses is juxtaposed against the Obama Administration’s seemingly petty concern about politics and public perceptions: 186 Text 4.26 WP-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE This can be seen in the statement where the Obama Administration was seen as keen to “distance itself publicly from BP” even as it worked handin-hand with the oil company “largely behind the scenes”. This overwhelming focus on winning the war of public opinion seems to signal that the core task of halting the oil spill and minimizing damage has taken a backseat to electoral concerns. This is further foregrounded by the scathing assessment in the WP-corpus article that “BP was still in charge” on the technological front as “not even the Pentagon had the kind of robotic submersibles, hardware and know-how” to deal with a blow-out 5000 feet deep in the Gulf. Text 4.27 foregrounds the agency of the oil spill and attributes it clearly to the “national failure (of the US Government) to develop alternative energy sources”: Text 4.27. WP-Corpus – Screenshot for “Oil Company” in SkE 187 The pro-business and pragmatic slant is clearly seen in Text 4.27 in the clear reference to how BP, Transocean and Halliburton will cease to exist. This is significant as it clarifies the full extent of the costs involved in castigating BP as the sole villain in the catastrophe. This is simply because Transocean and Halliburton are American firms whose fortunes and existence are closely tied with that of BP’s survival. This couches the discourse on pragmatic rather than on moral grounds. This point is further exacerbated by the factual reference to how the Gulf provides “one in four barrels of oil produced in the United States, a resource (our) economy requires”. This once again highlights the conceptual metaphor - SUCCESS IN BUSINESS IS A RATIONAL COST-BENEFIT CALCULATION THAT REQUIRES SACRIFICE. The juxtaposition of this metaphor with the earlier metaphorical reference to the oil industry being a “KIDNAPPER HOLDING THE US TO RANSOM” (e.g. the oil companies “have the country over a barrel”) as a result of the US government’s lack of foresight and competence clearly showcases the probusiness ideological leanings that are inherent within the WP-corpus. It is interesting to note how aspects of the agency of the oil spill, specifically pertaining to BP’s negligence and the failure of the US Government to adequately enforce environmental safeguards, are concealed in the WP-corpus, foregrounding instead the pro-business considerations that can have significant political repercussions in an election year. The inadequacies and the political insecurities of the Obama Administration are also brought to the fore in an effort to highlight the positive aspects of BP’s contribution to the cause of the oil spill - its technological superiority, its commitment to the making restitution – while concealing BP’s agency in causing the catastrophe 188 the first place. The less palatable aspects of a pro-business stance such as the plight of the gulf coast residents, the destruction of the economy and the environment are effectively hidden. This once again demonstrates how conceptual metaphors can be a “crucial rhetorical resource” that “constructs, mediates and maintains” hegemonic ideals, and distinguish between ‘good’ allies and ‘bad’ enemies (Charteris-Black, 2004, p.114). 4.6 Summary This chapter demonstrates the utility of the WMatrix and Sketch Engine software in the empirical and objective generation of semantic domains as well as the empirical suggestion of the relevant lexical items for metaphorical analysis in a large corpus. Coupled with the procedures proposed by the IICM, a thorough analysis of the range of conceptual metaphors and their relevant interconnections can be systematically obtained. Hence, the IICM provides a platform that reveals the aggregate nuances and connotations that may not be evident when encountered in a single text or article. However, a definitive statement on a newspaper’s stance cannot be made from a single corpus, thus, further research needs to be done in order to triangulate these findings over a range of issues for statistical validity. However, for this thesis, all statements and claims are limited to the findings of these specific corpora. This chapter has also demonstrated how a deeper analysis of the relevant contexts and ideas can be achieved through an expansion of the surrounding contexts of the node words for an in-depth critical analysis that takes the historical, social and contextual details into account. In this instance, 189 the IICM clearly identifies the subtle ideological nuances inherent in each broadsheet. The differences in the portrayal of the WAR metaphor are captured clearly in Figures 4.9-4.10: Fig 4.9. Pictorial Representation of Metaphorical Primitives and Compounds (NYT-Corpus) – “POLITICS IS WAR/ BUSINESS IS WAR” (adapted from Grady, Taub & Morgan, 1996) ONTOLOGICAL METAPHOR: THE FOREIGNER IS THE ENEMY/ BP IS THE ENEMY/ RECKLESS PERSON/ CRIMINAL THE STATE IS A VICTIM/ THE ENVIRONMENT IS A VICTIM THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN EFFECTIVE LAW ENFORCER/ COMPETENT LEADER STRUCTURAL METAPHOR: POLITICS IS WAR/ BUSINESS IS WAR ANALOGY-BASED METAPHOR: HURRICANE KATRINA/ CHERNOBYL/IRAN HOSTAGE CRISIS Fig 4.10 Pictorial Representation of Metaphorical Primitives and Compounds (WP-Corpus) – “POLITICS IS A GAME OF STRATEGY/ BUSINESS IS A GAME OF SURVIVAL” (adapted from Grady, Taub & Morgan, 1996) ONTOLOGICAL METAPHOR: BP IS A REPENTANT CRIMINAL MAKING RESTITUTION/ BP IS CORE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTOR BP IS A VICTIM/ INVESTORS ARE VICTIMS/ THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN INCOMPETENT LEADER/ UNTRUSTWORTHY POLITICIAN STRUCTURAL METAPHOR: POLITICS IS A GAME OF STRATEGY BUSINESS IS A RATIONAL COST-BENEFIT CALCULATION THAT REQUIRES SACRIFICE/ POLITICAL SUCCESS IS ECONOMIC GAIN It is vital to note that this diagrammatic classification is ultimately a mental model or an “abstract inference from linguistic evidence” (CharterisBlack, 2004, p.244). However, this hierarchical organisation enables us to identify interrelationships between metaphors and assists in accounting for 190 coherence in the discourse under analysis. This diagrammatic representation also enables us to see connections in an otherwise unrelated complex of sprawling metaphors. Figures 4.9 and 4.10 effectively demonstrate the subtle differences in ideological affiliations in two comparable newspaper corpora pertaining to the BP Oil Spill. The IICM has proven to be an effective tool in preliminarily distinguishing the aggregate ideological differences in a comparative approach to large corpora. It is interesting to note the moralistic castigation of BP propagated in the left-of-centre NYT-corpus in contrast to the more pragmatic, pro-business leanings adopted in right-of-centre WPcorpus. This is in spite of the overarching similarities in the main metaphorical portrayals pertaining to the conceptualisation of the oil spill and the two most culpable parties involved (specifically BP and the various branches of the US Government). These similarities can be attributed to the mutual influence from reports pertaining to the oil spill as well as the shared conceptual metaphorical systems that are delineated only by traditional partisan affiliations. Hence, by marrying qualitative analysis with quantitative salience, we are able to analyse the subtle intra-cultural differences in a comparative approach. This method also seeks to strike an adequate balance between semiautomatic and manual analysis that is productive, empirical and most importantly repeatable for inter-rater reliability. This entire section thus showcases the potential inherent in combining the computational capacities of WMatrix and Sketch Engine with the IICM for the systematic and inductive cross-cultural comparison of metaphors. The key advantage of this approach is that it provides an alternative framework to triangulate the findings from traditional intensive manual analysis of representative samples. It also 191 provides a common springboard for academic disagreements due to the systematicity of the IICM. This is because the explicit commitment to empirical evidence from these online concordancing programmes will enable other researchers to base their disagreements on the same platform with respect to the same set of evidence, thus facilitating the ensuing academic discussions pertaining to the findings contained within the target discourse. 192 [...]...• A comparative analysis of the portrayal of BP and the Obama Administration in the context of foregrounding American nationalistic interests in the NYT and WP -corpus (“Damage”/ “History”/ “Rhetoric”/ “Environment”) • A comparative analysis of the pre-eminence and the nature of the WAR/CRIME/THREAT conceptual keys in the NYT and WP -Corpus ( Oil_ Modifies”) 4. 4 The Power of Political Affiliations: The. .. in the Obama administration’s response to combating the oil spill instead of focusing on the investigative process that will serve to expose BP’s true agency in the matter Another key metaphorical evaluative strategy in the WP -corpus lies in the way the framing of the oil spill is couched in the language of costs and the associated financial 1 64 implications Such a strategy is seen as a way of bridging... Oil Giant” in SkE The extract in Text 4. 4 claims that in the process of justifying an allout war against BP in an effort to exonerate his administration’s failings, Obama is in fact on the brink of threatening the interests of an entire nation (Britain), often seen as a staunch ally in matters of international policy 148 Obama’s deliberate reference to BP’s old name, British Petroleum” (instead of. .. blindly castigating BP, a major player in the cornerstone oil industry This can be clearly seen in the way the altruistic claims of the Obama 149 administration are questioned against a very different background of facts that emphasises the significant role played by BP in both the American and British economies Figures 4. 3 -4. 4 demonstrate the pictorial representation of the range of conceptual metaphors. .. blame arising from the oil spill onto the Obama administration by foregrounding the administration’s inadequacies and poor political approval ratings A unifying thread can also be seen running through Text 4. 14: Text 4. 14 WP -Corpus – Screenshot for “Response” in SkE Text 4. 14 upholds the theme of the Obama administration’s inadequate use of the moral accounting metaphor by foregrounding its untenable... evaluative strand describes the Obama administration’s response as “marked by confusion” and “failure” The remaining concordance lines attribute a “fair or poor” grade to the efforts of the federal government that are scathingly characterized as “lacking” Another persistent evaluative strand is embodied in the concealing of BP’s agency in the oil spill This is achieved by focusing on the shortcomings in. .. “shambolic” and “collapse” in competence The intertwined metaphorical portrayal of the Bush Administration as an INCOMPETENT 152 LEADER and that of BP as a RECKLESS CRIMINAL who failed to take “adequate precautions” simultaneously works to mitigate the Obama Administration’s agency in the spill, legitimising his continued leadership of the country This pro-Obama stance is further demonstrated in the illogical... separation between the Obama Administration and the “federal regulators (Minerals Management Service)” Text 4. 6 NYT -Corpus – Screenshot for “Damage” in SkE Text 4. 6 above foregrounds Obama’s “well-intentions” and downplays his culpability in the entire saga, thus potentially affecting the reader’s views of the situation Instead of castigating the Obama Administration’s gullibility and rightfully attributing... directed at the Obama Administration’s efforts in containing the disaster Instead of extolling the virtues of Obama’s hands-on approach to “see the environmental damage for himself” and to “check on the federal response”, Text 4. 9 seems to place great emphasis on the Obama Administrations preoccupation with the political aspect of the spill i.e in avoiding the “mistakes made by President George W Bush” instead... instead of focusing on the core issue of alleviating the suffering of the true victims of the spill – the people and the associated industries Another 158 insidiously layered sub-text seems to indicate the Obama Administration’s incompetence as it highlights the administration’s inability to cope with a disaster that pales in comparison with the “much more dire Hurricane Katrina” The oil spill is also . 143 • A comparative analysis of the portrayal of BP and the Obama Administration in the context of foregrounding American nationalistic interests in the NYT and WP -corpus (“Damage”/ “History”/. domains for further analysis are shown in the list below. The corpus and the accompanying rank within the semantic domain are captured in the accompanying brackets after the semantic domains Ontological Metaphors and Orientational/Spatial Metaphors. The final category is Image/Analogy- based Metaphors (Gibbs, 1999; Lakoff, 1992). Taken in tandem, these four categories of metaphors