EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BICULTURAL STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG KOREAN ADOLESCENTS IN SINGAPORE : A MIXED METHODS STUDY CHUNG, YOU-JIN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 i EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BICULTURAL STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG KOREAN ADOLESCENTS IN SINGAPORE : A MIXED METHODS STUDY CHUNG, YOU-JIN B.A., M.A (Social Work), Ewha Womans University A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 ii DECLARATION “I hereby declare that the thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the thesis This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously.” Chung, You-Jin 19 July 2014 i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Upon the completion of my PhD thesis, I must show my thankfulness to many people I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Dr Mohanty, my supervisor, for her constant encouragement and support, constructive guidance and advice, and valuable comments at all stages of the research I also would like to express my gratitude to thesis committee members, Dr Esther Goh and Dr Kang Yoonhee, who gave me valuable comments and insightful feedbacks for this thesis I am especially thankful to Dr Rosaleen Ow, Head of Social Work Department and many of the department’s faculty members for their encouragement and friendship I must also thank Ms Boo Chui Ngoh, Ms Suraya Bte Ahmad, Ms Lim Shan Shan, and Ms Tan Ching Lin for their administrative support There are many others who have touched me in one way or another Here I would like to extend my gratitude and thanks to my Social Work mates, Dr Xu Jian Bin, Dr Chan Cheong Chong, Ms Joan Khang, Dr Peace Wong, Ms Teo Poh Leng, Ms Corinne Ghoh, and Mrs Sylvia Mun My special thanks to Mr Kim Youngwan, Seongyoon, Jaeran, and Yeongyung for their dedicated help for collecting the data My sincere thanks to Hyunju, Jaejung, and my church friends and students for their care, support, and love I am deeply indebted to my loved parents, my understanding husband Sang Uk, and my lovely kids Jeong Eon and Han Bin Throughout this pursuing of my dream, they showed me their deepest understanding, unwavering supportiveness, and love Last but not least, God, the Almighty, who have led and taught me at every step during this journey, to whom I give my special thanks ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration I Acknowledgments ii Table of contents iii Summary vi List of tables viii List of figures ix Introduction 1.1 Background and significance of the study 1.1.1 Korean adolescents in Singapore 1.1.2 Mixed methods approach 1.2 Research purpose and questions 1.3 Context of study 1.3.1 Migration policies in Singapore 1.3.2 Korean adolescents’ educational aspiration: Early Study Abroad (ESA) 11 Review of literature 13 2.1 Determination of acculturation 14 2.1.1 Fourfold acculturation strategies and the context of the receiving society 15 2.2 Bicultural stress during acculturation 17 2.2.1 Korean youths in the US 19 2.2.2 Asian immigrant youths in Asian countries 21 2.2.3 Bicultural stress in particular contexts 23 2.3 Bicultural stress and psychological well-being 2.3.1 Challenges: Bicultural stress and psychological well-being in Singapore 2.4 Ethnic identity of immigrant adolescents 2.4.1 Social identity theory: intergroup relations 2.5 Ethnic identity and psychological well-being 27 28 30 30 33 2.5.1 Protective role of ethnic identity 35 2.6 Research objectives and hypotheses 2.6.1 Hypotheses 38 38 iii Methodology 41 3.1 Pragmatism: Mixed methods assumption 41 3.1.1 Justification for using mixed methods 42 3.2 Research procedure: Exploratory sequential mixed methods 44 3.3 Mixed methods data analytic strategy 46 Study 1: Qualitative research 49 4.1 Participants 49 4.2 Focus group discussion 51 4.3 Sampling strategy and number of groups 52 4.4 Data collection 53 4.5 Data analysis 55 4.6 Findings 59 4.6.1 Ambivalence: Feeling superior but separate 59 4.6.2 Pressure to keep being a Korean from both sides 63 4.6.3 More traditional but less supportive 67 4.6.4 Less stress in speaking English, but more stress in learning Chinese and keeping Korean: pressure to become a trilingual 4.6.5 Pride that “I am a Korean”: Confidence in ethnic identity 4.6.6 Being global: Confidence in both cultures 4.7 Discussion and implications of the quantitative study 69 73 75 77 4.7.1 “You are my special Korean friend”: Peer pressure 77 4.7.2 “Am I trilingual?”: Language stressor 80 4.7.3 Implications for selecting the measurement for the next quantitative study 83 Study 2: Quantitative research 85 5.1 Sampling strategy and data collection 85 5.2 Measurements 87 5.2.1 Bicultural stress 87 5.2.2 Ethnic identity 95 5.2.3 Psychological well-being 96 5.2.4 Demographic information 98 5.3 Results 98 5.3.1 Descriptive results 98 iv 5.3.2 Bivariate correlation for testing variables 102 5.3.2 Testing of moderating model 105 Discussion and implications 116 6.1 Experiences of bicultural stress 117 6.2 Ethnic identity of Korean adolescents in Singapore 120 6.3 Moderation effect of ethnic identity 117 6.4 Implications to theory 125 6.5 Implications for practice 127 6.6 Implications for policies in Singapore 129 6.7 Limitations and future research 133 6.6 Concluding remarks 135 Bibliography 138 Appendices 157 v SUMMARY Adjusting to a new environment is particularly challenging for immigrant adolescents, who are trying to adapt to two cultures while dealing with the normal developmental process of identity formation Hence, they generally encounter stress during settlement The stress perceived by immigrant adolescents has aroused much interest in academic and practical areas because it can negatively impact the psychological well-being of these adolescents However, the current understanding of how Asian immigrant adolescents adapt to life in new Asian countries is limited despite the dramatic increase in migration within Asia in recent years The primary purpose of the present study is to investigate the acculturation experiences of Korean immigrant adolescents (age 13-18) in Singapore by exploring the stress they experience and how they identify themselves during their settlement as well as the moderation effect of ethnic identity on the relationship between bicultural stress and psychological well-being (high self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms) This study used an exploratory sequential mixed method The qualitative study found six themes related to stress and the identity formation of these Korean adolescents in terms of peer, family, and the linguistic contexts of Singapore: ‘ambivalence’, ‘pressure to keep being a Korean’, ‘more traditional but less supportive’, ‘pressure to become trilingual’, ‘confidence in ethnic identity’, and ‘confidence in both cultures’ Based on these findings, measures were selected and modified where necessary for the quantitative portion of the study to examine the moderating effect of ethnic identity on the relationship between the bicultural stress and psychological vi well-being of Korean adolescent immigrants The primary model testing in the quantitative study showed that (a) bicultural stress negatively impacted psychological well-being (i.e., it resulted in lower self-esteem and more depressive symptoms) and (b) ethnic identity positively influenced psychological well-being (higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms) However, contrary to the hypothesis, ethnic identity did not buffer the impact of bicultural stress on psychological well-being Rather, ethnic identity enhanced the impact of stress on depression for Korean adolescents who reported having a stronger ethnic identity The discussion focuses on integrating the qualitative and quantitative study results There are some challenges to understanding the role of ethnic identity among Korean adolescents in Singapore: ethnic identity may not be a salient issue for Korean adolescents with respect to protecting themselves from ethic prejudice and discrimination in the Korean-favourable environment in Singapore Furthermore, developing ethnic identity may be a source of stress for Korean adolescents, making them feel separated from their Singaporean peers In addition, not all minority youths experience negative discrimination related to their ethnic background in a host society Instead, some immigrant youths experience positive discrimination by the majority group in the receiving country However this positive discrimination (or positive stereotype) toward a particular ethnic group can be another source of stress that immigrant youths need to handle during their settlement The present study helps identify further studies on the adjustment of Asian immigrant youths in Asia (481 words) vii LIST OF TABLES Table Conceptual definition of study variables 40 Table Profile of participant of FGD Table Theme and axial codes Table Theme, axial codes and new items of stress Table Exploratory factor analysis 94 Table Sample characteristics 100 Table Bivariate Correlation of testing variables Table Moderating effects on self-esteem using hierarchical multiple regression 108 Table Moderating effects on depression using hierarchical multiple regression 110 Table 10 Conditional effect of bicultural stress at level of ethnic identity 112 Table 11 Conditional effect of bicultural stress at level of ethnic identity 114 Table 12 Conditional effect of bicultural stress at level of ethnic identity 115 55 58 viii 90 104 You will complete of a 20-minute questionnaire at a Korean church or Tuition Centre you are attending How will my privacy and the confidentiality of my research records be protected? The survey will be conducted anonymously Only your demographic information (e.g age, gender) will be collected Research data collected will be stored for 10 years after the completion of the research before they are discarded What are the possible discomforts and risks for participants? There will be minimal discomforts for you when participating in this research You need to sacrifice some of personal time to complete the questionnaires However, you can skip any question that you feel uncomfortable with What is the compensation for any injury? No injury and/or compensation are expected Will there be reimbursement for participation? You will receive a token of appreciation for your participation What are the possible benefits to me and to others? There is no direct benefit to you in participating in this study Can I refuse to participate in this research? Yes, you can Your decision to participate in this research is voluntary and completely up to you You can also withdraw from the research at any time before the questionnaire is submitted without giving any reasons, by informing PI and all your data collected will be discarded However, note that once the questionnaire is submitted, you will not be able to withdraw your responses since the PI will not know which responses belong to you Whom should I call if I have any questions or problems? Please contact the Principal Investigator, Chung, You-Jin at telephone +65 9818 3545 and email you.jin@nus.edu.sg for all research-related matters and in the event of research-related injuries For an independent opinion regarding the research and the rights of research participants, you may contact a staff member of the National University of Singapore Institutional Review Board (Attn: Mr Chan Tuck Wai, at telephone +65 6516 1234 or email at irb@nus.edu.sg) 176 Invitation Letter To Tuition Centre/ Church To: Person in charge in tuition centre/ church Project Title: Examining the Relationship between Bicultural stress and Psychological Well-being among Korean Adolescents in Singapore My name is Chung, You-Jin I am a PhD candidate in the Department of Social Work at the National University of Singapore I am conducting a research study on Korean adolescent’s experiences while they are staying in Singapore Hence, I would like to invite Korean adolescents attending your Church/ Tuition Centre to participate in this research This research attempts to get information from your Korean adolescents about their experiences (their stresses, identities, and adjustment issues) while residing in Singapore This is important because not much is known about their perspective on what stresses they experience, how they develop their identities and how well they adjust into different culture from Korea The findings of this research may bring significant impact to the policy and program for immigrant adolescents in Singapore This research may help professionals learn a better way of serving immigrant adolescents I seek your assistance to recruit suitable Korean participants for my research study Participants should be between 13 to 18 years old, attend a Singapore public school and live with at least parent in Singapore Details of the research are found in the attached Information Sheet Participation in this research is on voluntary basis If participants agree, they will complete a 20- minute survey questionnaire If your Church/ Tuition Centre agrees to assist me with the recruitment of potential participants, I would appreciate if you could forward the attached Invitation Letter, Parental and Child Information Sheet and Consent Forms, and the survey questionnaires to those who are eligible so that they can seek their parents’ permission to participate in the research Those who have parental permission to participate or parents can call me or email me if they have any inquires about this research at any time All the data gathered from your students will be protected and kept confidential The data will not be disclosed to any other person and will be used for academic purposes only Please feel free to contact me should you require further information on this research study 177 Thank you Best regards, Chung, You-Jin (PhD candidate at National University of Singapore) Phone Number: + 65-9818-3545 Email: you.jin@nus.edu.sg 178 Appendix C Guideline for Focus Group Interview Stresses they have experienced in bicultural context (Singapore) 1-1 Peer relations  Have you ever experienced any troubles with your friends because you have different ethnic background (Korean)? If yes, what are they?  Have you ever experienced any pressures that your friends want you to act like Singaporean kids? What are they?  Have you ever experienced any pressures that your friends want you to act like Korean kids? What are they?  What you think is being Singaporean? Or how you feel when your friend says you look like Singaporean?  What you think is being Korean? Or how you feel when your friend says you look like Korean? 1-2 Family relations  Have you ever experienced any troubles with your family member, especially with your parents, because of differences between Korean and Singapore culture? What are they? 1-3 Language  Have you experienced any difficulties related to the English? If yes, what are they?  Have you experienced any difficulties related to the Korean? If yes, what are they?  Do you think you should speak English better? Why?  Do you think you should speak Korean better? Why? 1-4 Daily living  Have you experienced any troubles at your school because you are a foreigner (or an immigrant)? If yes, what are they?  Have you experienced any troubles in your daily life because you are a foreigner (or an immigrant)? If yes, what are they? 179 How they define their ethnic identity 2-1 Have you ever thought about your ethnic identity? 2-2 What you think which ethnic group you are belong to? Why? 2-3 How you feel which culture – Korean, Singapore or Others – is most comfortable with you? Why? 2-4 When you specifically think you are Korean? Why? 2-5 When you specifically think you are Singaporean? Why? 2-6 When you specifically think you are Korean Singaporean? Why? 180 Appendix D BSS items and new items Original BSS 20-items Modified 26-items I have been treated badly because of my accent Because of family obligation I can’t always what I want I have worried about family members or friends having problems with immigration I have had problems at school because of my poor English I have had problems at school because of my poor English I not feel comfortable with people whose culture is different from mine I not feel comfortable with people whose culture is different from mine I have felt pressure to learn Spanish I have felt pressure to learn Korean I have felt that I need to speak Spanish better I have felt that I need to speak Korean better I have argued my boyfriend/girlfriend over being too traditional My friends think I am acting ‘White’ My Korean friends think I am acting ‘Singaporean’ My parents feel not respect older people the way I should I feel uncomfortable when others make jokes about or put down people of my ethnic back ground I feel uncomfortable when others make jokes about or put down Korean people I have argued with family members because I not want to some traditions I have felt irritated when my parents ask me to some Korean traditions I have had to translate/interpret for my parents I have felt lonely and isolated because my family does not stick together I have felt that others not accept me because of my ethnic group I have felt that others not accept me because of my ethnic group (Korean) I have had to help my parents by explaining how to things in the US I have had to help my parents by explaining how to things in Singapore 181 I feel like I can’t what most Singaporean kids because of my parents’ culture I feel like I can’t what most Singaporean kids because of my parents’ culture I feel that belonging to a gang is part of representing my ethnic group Sometimes I not understand why people from different ethnic background act a certain way Sometimes I not understand why people from different ethnic background act a certain way Sometimes I feel that it will be harder to succeed because of my ethnic background Sometimes I feel that it will be harder to succeed because of my ethnic background (Koreas) I have felt pressure to belong to Korean peer group I have felt pressure not to use localized English (Singlish) Sometimes it bothers me when I don’t understand the local accent of English I have felt pressure to be different from local peers I have a feeling of being separated from local friends My local friends have treated me differently because of my ethnic background (Korean) I feel uncomfortable when local friends show their bias toward Korean culture I feel uncomfortable when local friends show their bias toward Korean people Sometimes it bothers me to get the attention of local friends because my ethnic background (Korean) I have felt pressure to learn Chinese I have felt sense of distance from local friends when they speak in their mother tongues Sometimes it bothers me that local 182 friends are overly interested in Korea culture (Korean language, Korean popculture) I have felt pressure to become a trilingual (Korean, English and Other language like Chinese) I have felt envious of people who can speak in other language beside Korean and English 183 Appendix E Survey Questionnaires Section A Please indicate how stressful the following experiences have been for you If you have never had the experience listed please mark ‘5’ (does not apply) Not at all stressful I have had problems at school because of my poor English I have felt irritated when my parents ask me to some Korean traditions I have had to help my parents by explaining how to things in Singapore I have felt pressure not to use localized English (Singlish) I not feel comfortable with people whose culture is different from mine I have felt pressure to learn Korean I have felt that I need to speak in Korean better I have felt pressure to belong to Korean peer group My Korean friends think I am acting ‘Singaporean’ 10 Sometimes it bothers me when I don’t understand the local accent of English 11 I feel uncomfortable when others make jokes about or put down Korean people 12 I have felt that others not accept me because of my ethnic group (Korean) 13 Sometimes I feel that it will be harder to succeed because of my ethnic background (Korean) 14 I feel like I can’t what most Singaporean kids because of my parents’ culture 15 I have felt pressure to be different from local peers A little bit stressful Quite a bit stressful Very stressful Does not apply 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 184 16 I have a feeling of being separated from local friends 17 My local friends have treated me differently because of my ethnic background (Korean) 18 I feel uncomfortable when local friends show their bias toward Korean culture 19 Sometimes I not understand why people from different ethnic background act a certain way 20 I feel uncomfortable when local friends show their bias toward Korean people 21 Sometimes it bothers me to get the attention of local friends because my ethnic background (Korean) 22 I have felt pressure to learn Chinese 23 I have felt a sense of distance from local friends when they speak in their mother tongues 24 Sometimes it bothers me that local friends are overly interested in Korean culture (Korean language, Korean pop-culture) 25 I have felt pressure to become a trilingual (Korean, English and Other language like Chinese) 26 I have felt envious of people who can speak in other language beside Korean and English  5 5 5 5 5 Using a scale of to 10, with ‘10’ being extremely stressful and ‘1’ being not at all stressful, please tell me ‘how stressful you feel living in Singapore?’ Not at all stressful 185 10 Extremely stressful Section B In Singapore, people come from many different countries and cultures, and there are many different words to describe the different backgrounds or ethnic groups that people come from Some examples of the names of ethnic groups are Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, and others These questions are about your ethnicity or your ethnic group and how you feel about it and react to it Pleas fill in: “In terms of ethnic group, I consider myself to be _” Use the numbers below to indicated how much you agree or disagree with each statement Please, choose one option Strongly disagree I have spent time trying to find out more about my ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me I have often done things that will help me understand my ethnic background better I have often talked to other people in order to learn more about my ethnic group I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group 186 Disagree Agree Strongly agree 4 4 4 Section C Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feeling about yourself Use the numbers below to indicated how much you agree or disagree with each statement Please, choose one option Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree On the whole, I am satisfied with myself At times, I think I am no good at all I feel that I have a number of good quality 4 I am able to things as well as most other people I feel I not have much to be proud of I certainly feel useless at times I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others I wish I could have more respect for myself All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure 10 I take a positive attitude toward myself 187 Section D Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, or which indicates how much the statement applied to you There are no right or wrong answers Do not spend too much time on any statement Almost never Hardly ever Sometimes Most of time 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 15 I feel like other students don’t like me 16 I feel upset 3 17 I feel life is unfair 18 I feel tired 19 I feel I am bad I feel happy I worry about school I feel lonely I feel my parents don’t like me I feel important I feel like hiding from people I feel sad I feel like crying I feel that no one cares about me 10 I feel like having fun with other students 11 I feel sick 12 I feel loved 13 I feel like running away 14 I feel like hurting myself 188 20 I feel I am no good 189 3 3 3 30 I feel like noting I help anymore 29 I feel like eating meals 28 I feel bored 27 I get stomachaches 26 I feel worried 25 I feel like having fun 24 I have trouble sleeping 23 I feel like a talking to other students 22 I feel mad about things 21.I feel sorry for myself 1 Section E – Demographic information Question E-1 What is your gender? Male Female Question E-2 How old are you? (when were you born?) (year: ) Question E-3 Where were you born? (country name) Question E-4 What is the name of your school? _ Question E-5 What grade are you in? Secondary (or year 7) Secondary (or year 8) Secondary (or year 9) Secondary (or year 10) Polytechnic 1/ Junior College (or year 11) Polytechnic 2/ Junior College (or year 12) Question E-6 What year did you move to Singapore? Question E-7 How long you think will you live in Singapore? Question E-8 Have you lived in other foreign countries before moving into Singapore? _ Yes No Question E-9 Do you live with your parents? _ Yes No (If no, then answer question G-9.1) Question E-9.1 If you live with one of your parents who is living with you? _ Father Mother Question E-10 What is the highest level of education your father/ mother completed? (Father _/ Mother ) University or college or equivalent High school Secondary (Middle) school Primary school only (or less) 190 .. .EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BICULTURAL STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL- BEING AMONG KOREAN ADOLESCENTS IN SINGAPORE : A MIXED METHODS STUDY CHUNG, YOU-JIN B .A. , M .A (Social Work), Ewha... China, India, and South Asia, and has continually made an effort to designate an ‘art and learning hub’ and emphasize Singapore? ??s strength in having the ‘best combination of Asian and Western education... psychological well- being in this area, by exploring the stress Korean adolescents experience in Singapore with a qualitative method, and examining the impact of the stress on their psychological well- being