This page intentionally left blank This practical coursebook introduces all the basics of semantics in a simple, step-by- step fashion. Each unit includes short sections of explanation with examples, followed by stimulating practice exercises to complete the book. Feedback and comment sections follow each exercise to enable students to monitor their progress. No previous background in semantics is assumed, as students begin by discovering the value and fascination of the subject and then move through all key topics in the field, including sense and reference, simple logic, word meaning, and interpersonal meaning. New study guides and exercises have been added to the end of each unit (with online answer key) to help reinforce and test learning. A completely new unit on non-literal language and metaphor, plus updates throughout the text, significantly expand the scope of the original edition to bring it up-to-date with the modern teaching of semantics for introductory courses in linguistics as well as intermediate students. JAMES R. HURFORD is Professor of General Linguistics, University of Edinburgh. BRENDAN HEASLEY is Consultant (Postgraduate Training), Sharjah Women’s College, United Arab Emirates. MICHAEL B. SMITH is Associate Professor of Linguistics, Oakland University. Semantics A Coursebook SECOND EDITION JAMES R. HURFORD Professor of General Linguistics, University of Edinburgh BRENDAN HEASLEY Consultant (Postgraduate Training), Sharjah Women’s College, United Arab Emirates MICHAEL B. SMITH Associate Professor of Linguistics, Oakland University CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK First published in print format ISBN-13 978-0-521-67187-3 ISBN-13 978-0-511-28489-2 © James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley, and Michael B. Smith 2007 2007 Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521671873 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written p ermission of Cambrid g e University Press. ISBN-10 0-511-28489-6 ISBN-10 0-521-67187-6 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not g uarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or a pp ro p riate. Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org paperback eBook (EBL) eBook (EBL) paperback To S ue and Hilda, respectively James R. Hurford Brendan Heasley To my parents Michael B. Smith vii CONTENTS Prefaces ix Acknowledgements xi How to use this book xii 1 Basic ideas in semantics 1 UNIT 1 About semantics 1 UNIT 2 Sentences, utterances, and propositions 16 UNIT 3 Reference and sense 26 2 From reference . . . 36 UNIT 4 Referring expressions 36 UNIT 5 Predicates 45 UNIT 6 Predicates, referring expressions, and universe of discourse 56 UNIT 7 Deixis and definiteness 65 UNIT 8 Words and things: extensions and prototypes 79 3 to sense 93 UNIT 9 Sense properties and stereotypes 93 UNIT 10 Sense relations (1) 105 UNIT 11 Sense relations (2) 120 4 Logic 141 UNIT 12 About logic 141 UNIT 13 A notation for simple propositions 152 UNIT 14 Connectives: and and or 164 UNIT 15 More connectives 180 5 Word meaning 194 UNIT 16 About dictionaries 194 UNIT 17 Meaning postulates 205 UNIT 18 Properties of predicates 218 UNIT 19 Derivation 225 UNIT 20 Participant roles 244 Contents viii 6 Interpersonal and non-literal meaning 260 UNIT 21 Speech acts 260 UNIT 22 Perlocutions and illocutions 269 UNIT 23 Felicity conditions 281 UNIT 24 Direct and indirect illocutions 289 UNIT 25 Propositions and illocutions 303 UNIT 26 Conversational implicature 314 UNIT 27 Non-literal meaning: idioms, metaphor, and metonymy 327 Selected references and recommendations for further study 345 Index 347 [...]... general statements about all languages, especially about the most fundamental and central areas of meaning The fact that it is possible to translate any sentence of one language (at least roughly) into any other language (however clumsily) also reinforces the conclusion that the basic facts about meaning in all languages are, by and large, parallel This is not to deny, of course, that there are interesting... human languages in general – to Arabic and Russian no less than to German and French We take up this point about semantic theory being applicable to all languages below Notice that many of the particular basic facts about meaning in English mentioned in the last practice but one have clear counterparts in other languages, e.g German and French Practice This practice assumes a knowledge of French and... No 12 UNIT 1 About semantics (9) Have the actual geographical facts changed in any way since 520 ? Feedback Yes / No (1) Yes (2) in the central areas, around the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean (3) in the peripheral areas, West Africa, Africa south of the Sahara, Northern Europe, the Far East, and the New World (4) We have no alternative but to assume that our modern account of the facts is more... canals, have appeared and disappeared Comment The analogy between the development of semantics and the development of other areas of knowledge can be pressed quite far Aristotle can be regarded as a forerunner of modern semantics, just as Hecataeus was a forerunner of modern geography Aristotle was clearly concerned with the same general areas that concern modern semanticists There are areas of meaning studied... the ancients As far as we can tell, although individual languages have changed (Modern Greek is very different from Ancient Greek), the basic ways in which language is used to convey meaning have not changed at all An analogy should not be pushed too far Obviously there are also differences between semantics and a physical science, like geography It will be seen that the semanticist has certain advantages... the examples in this book will be from standard English We assume that most readers are native speakers of English and hence know the meanings of English expressions This may seem paradoxical: if semantics is the study of meaning, and speakers already know the meanings of all the expressions in their language, surely they cannot learn anything from semantics! What can a book written for English speakers,... good at describing meanings, or theorizing about meaning in general, but he has no advantage over any normal speaker of a language in the matter of access to the basic data concerning meaning English, like most languages, has a number of different dialects Just as the pronunciation of English varies from one dialect to another, so there are also differences in the basic semantic facts from one dialect... consider languages less closely related to English than French and German, such as Eskimo, or an Australian aborigine language, or Navaho, we would find many more such examples of differences between languages But interesting as such differences may be as ‘collector’s items’, semantics concentrates on the similarities between languages, rather than on the differences Semantic theory is a part of a larger enterprise,... theory, for example, to illuminate any of these facts Chemical theory deals with chemical facts, such as the fact that iron rusts in water Semantic theory deals with semantic facts, facts about meaning, such as those stated in the true statements above In aiming to discover some system and pattern in an assortment of particular facts about the meanings of individual words, sentences, and utterances, it... study of MEANING in LANGUAGE Comment The rest of this book can be regarded as an example of how one goes about investigating and understanding semantics It may seem to you that meaning is so vague, insubstantial, and elusive that it is impossible to come to any clear, concrete, or tangible conclusions about it We hope to convince you that by careful thought about the language you speak and the way it is . careful thinking about your language and the way you use it, concentrating, naturally, on instances of such words as mean, means, and meaning. Practice Reproduced below is a well-known passage from Lewis Carroll’s. be at least one step ahead of your students, and already familiar with more of the literature on semantics than just this book. This book is just a beginning. The further readings recommended at. usually helps to clarify issues. Approach the questions asked by your students with an open mind, aiming to see how any misunderstandings may have arisen. And always be prepared to admit that some