Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ theses@gla.ac.uk Kamando, Amina Nasibu (2014) Government-community partnership in the provision of education in Rural Tanzania. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5294/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Government-Community Partnership in the Provision of Education in Rural Tanzania Amina Nasibu Kamando Cert. Ed. (Mandaka TTC, Tanzania); Diploma Adult Education (Institute of Adult Education, Tanzania); BED-ADE (UDSM, Tanzania); MA-Ed (UDSM, Tanzania) Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Education College of Social Sciences University of Glasgow Supervisors: Dr. Lesley Doyle and Mr. Rod Purcell June 2014 i Abstract Investing in education can be seen as a tool that can facilitate a better quality of life for individuals and for society in general. Through a strategy of partnership working, the poor in the society have more chance of accessing educational opportunities. In Tanzania, provision of education is the collaborative task of various groups including local communities. However, despite various efforts through established educational programmes and reforms, poverty levels are still high, particularly in rural areas, suggesting that efforts to reduce poverty through education have not yet produced significant results. Using the experiences and perspectives of people living in Tanzanian rural communities, this study explored the nature of the government-community partnership (GCP) in the provision of educational opportunities. The study examined the literature to explore tensions around the concepts and issues in the discourse on the collective working spirit including the wider perspectives offered by the historical background and the political complexity of partnership working in community development. The study adopted a qualitative multiple-case study approach and used multiple sources of evidence (semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, non- participant observation and documents) to gather the in-depth data necessary to explore the practice of GCP. In writing this account, the analysis and discussion of findings were explored through the lens of a GCP networking framework offered by the theories of social networks and social capital. To facilitate the analysis of GCP, four key themes were identified. The first theme explored the context under which community participation is practised within the GCP framework. The second analysed micro-politics in decision-making and the implementation process of community development. The third examined the nature of leadership at local levels in GCP working relationships. The fourth theme considered the challenges of current GCP practice and possible future alternatives. The findings from this study suggest that, despite GCP appearing to be a complicated social phenomenon, it is and will remain, a reliable solution to the socio-economic problems of the rural poor populace. The problems associated ii with GCP practice for education and community development in rural communities are systemic and associated with a system in which power is disproportionately distributed among the GCP actors. The nature of this GCP working relationship has prevented opportunities for creating productive network ties and for the collective development of social capital. The study concluded that strengthening network ties and building social capital might not in themselves be adequate; rather, there is a need for a responsive government with a grounded mutual power structure based on transparency and trust. Keywords: Partnership working, government-community partnership, community development, power relations, education provision, social networks, social capital, rural communities and Tanzania. ii Table of Contents Abstract i Table of Contents ii List of Figures vi Dedication vii Acknowledgement viii Author's declaration ix Acronyms and Abbreviations x Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study 1 1.1 Statement of the problem 1 1.2 Purpose of the study 4 1.3 Research questions 5 1.4 Scope of the study 5 1.5 Structure of the thesis 6 Chapter 2 Background and the Context of the Study 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Political and ideological context: a historical perspective 9 2.3 Community development in ujamaa context 15 2.4 Development of education in Tanzania 17 2.5 Adult education 23 2.6 Poverty reduction, education and community participation 25 Chapter 3 Review of Literature 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Community development 31 3.2.1 The idea of community 31 3.2.2 Community development 35 3.2.3 Empowerment and power relations in community development 39 3.2.4 Needs-based/Assets-based community development approaches 44 3.3 Community participation 48 3.3.1 Patterns of participation 49 3.3.2 Motives for people participation 52 3.3.3 Policy and decision-making: a community participation task 53 3.3.4 Leadership and community participation 58 3.3.5 Governance and ‘good’ governance in the GCP context 63 iii 3.4 Partnership working 68 3.4.1 Principles of effective partnership 72 3.4.2 Partnership working for education provision 75 3.5 Conclusion 78 Chapter 4 Theoretical Framework 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Social networks and social capital theories in GCP rural context: the rationale 79 4.3 Social network theory 85 4.3.1 Strong and weak ties in network structures 89 4.4 Social capital theory 91 4.4.1 Forms of social capital 93 4.5 Conclusion 94 Chapter 5 Research Methodology 96 5.1 Introduction 96 5.2 Research design 96 5.2.1 Qualitative approach 97 5.2.2 Multiple-case study research 99 5.3 Research instruments used 101 5.3.1 Semi-structured interviews 101 5.3.2 Focus group discussions 104 5.3.3 Non-participant observation 105 5.3.4 Documents 106 5.4 Sampling and participants for the study 107 5.4.1 Sampling procedures 107 5.4.2 Participants for the study 108 5.4.3 Anonymity and confidentiality 109 5.5 Research setting and gaining access 110 5.5.1 Research setting 110 5.5.2 Gaining access to research sites 112 5.6 Pilot study 113 5.7 Data management and analysis procedure 113 5.7.1 Data management 113 5.7.2 Thematic analysis 114 5.8 Validity and reliability in qualitative research 120 iv 5.9 Ethical compliance 121 Chapter 6 Government-Community Partnership in Education Provision 123 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Community participation: ‘A poverty reduction tool’ 124 6.3 ‘Value of education’: a motivational factor for GCP participation? 126 6.4 Attitudes towards collective working 130 6.5 Financing education within the GCP framework 134 6.5.1 Government and community contributions — the GCP 134 6.5.2 The extent of contributions from the GCP 137 6.6 Participation patterns in terms of age group 140 6.7 Discussion of findings 143 Chapter 7 Micro-Politics of Decision-Making and Implementation in GCP151 7.1 Introduction 151 7.2 Theory versus practice in the GCP policy-making process: ‘we are the implementers’ 152 7.3 ‘Inspiring and mobilising’ or ‘manipulating’: GCP political tensions 155 7.4 Implementing policy in GCP framework: ‘education provision’ 157 7.4.1 Planning procedures for implementation: bottom-up model? 159 7.4.2 GCP and political tensions in implementing policy: ‘fatalistic feelings and disempowerment’ 165 7.5 The impact of politics on the quality of education 169 7.6 Discussion of findings 173 Chapter 8 Leadership and Government-Community Partnership 183 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Leadership structure and commitment: ‘something is wrong’ 184 8.3 Local leadership motivation: ‘even a token of appreciation’ 189 8.4 Local leaders’ power: ‘blessings and rubber-stamps’ 190 8.5 Mobilisation strategies for community activities: ‘Tins and trumpets’ . 195 8.6 Lack of leadership capacity building 197 8.7 Discussion of findings 200 Chapter 9 Challenges of Practising GCP: the Way Forward? 208 9.1 Introduction 208 9.2 Clash of perspectives in the practice of GCP: ujamaa versus contemporary society 209 9.2.1 Ujamaa: ‘discipline, courtesy and determination’ 209 v 9.2.2 Maintaining discipline for collective working during ujamaa: a ‘frightened discipline’ 211 9.2.3 Practising GCP in contemporary society: ‘lack of civic education’ 213 9.2.4 Practising GCP in a non-transparent contemporary society: ‘Ours’ versus ‘mine’ 215 9.3 Ways forward for effective GCP 218 9.3.1 The need to restore ujamaa principles 219 9.3.2 [Re]activate adult education classes and community education 221 9.3.3 Community-based research and wider context partnerships 223 9.4 Discussion of findings 227 Chapter 10 Conclusions 242 10.1 Introduction 242 10.2 Summary of the main findings 243 10.2.1 The nature of Government-Community Partnership 244 10.2.2 Micro-politics in GCP related policy: ‘Power relations’ 246 10.2.3 Challenges and opportunities for an improved GCP 251 10.3 Implications of the study’s findings 256 10.4 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research 261 10.5 Reflection on the theoretical framework in the study of GCP 263 10.6 Final remarks 264 References 268 Appendices 294 vi List of Figures Figure 3.1: Ladder of citizen participation 50 Figure 3.2: Leadership as an interactive process 59 Figure 3.3: Six dimensions of good governance 66 Figure 3.4: Principles of effective partnership 72 Figure 3.5: Main stages of developing a partnership 74 Figure 4.1: GCP networking framework for rural community development 84 Figure 5.1: Identifying themes through thematic analysis 116 Figure 5.2: A thematic map: Key themes and sub-themes extracted from data through thematic analysis 119 Figure 6.1: Breakdown for school building project in D1 138 Figure 7.1: The bottom-up planning system for implementation: ‘people’s priorities’ 161 Figure 8.1: Leadership structure in GCP working relationship 185 Figure 8.2: Targeted groups for capacity building plan in D1 199 Figure 8.3: A disconnected network ties of leadership in GCP working 204 vii Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my beloved father, the late Mr. Nasibu Kamando Mbaga (1939-2001), who did not live long enough to celebrate his daughter’s achievement. And To my brother Daudi Nasibu Mbaga, who his encouragement and support has inspired my success in life and this thesis. [...]... from individuals to communities (URT, 1995a) This study is concerned with the provision of education in the rural communities through GCP The central purpose is to explore the nature of GCP in the provision of education in rural communities in Tanzania It examines how GCP works through 4 those involved in GCP activities — their perspectives, experiences and challenges regarding GCP and education provision. .. implementation of the policy, ETP in clause 4.3.1 states: Ministries responsible for education and training shall devolve their responsibilities of managing and administration of education and training to lower organs and communities (URT, 1995a, p.26) The purpose was to broaden the base for the provision of education and training through cost-sharing measures However, establishing schools under the political-liberal... how and where is it manifested and is it utilised for education provision? 1.4 Scope of the study As noted above, the aim of this thesis is to explore the nature of GCP in education provision at rural levels in Tanzania The scope of the study was determined by the fact that partnership working is a broad perspective, one that includes various groups of actors (such as government/public sectors, nongovernmental... whilst developmental projects are directed at rural areas with the aim of improving the standard of living 1.5 Structure of the thesis This thesis consists of ten chapters, including this introduction (chapter one) which states the research problem, purpose, research questions and the scope of the study The second chapter provides the background and the context of the study It provides a historical and political-ideological... the internationally agreed targets for poverty reduction (see URT, 2005a, 2006a) The MKUKUTA is striving to widen spaces for country ownership by encouraging local and external partnerships in social and economic development (URT, 2006a) Another important milestone is the introduction of the Education and Training Policy (ETP) in 1995 to guide the provision of education and training in the context of. .. community level The study is expected to inform policy on education provision and community participation and to suggest a way forward for an optimal partnership working in the light of rural communities’ understanding and experiences 1.3 Research questions Taking into account the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the literature and the theoretical framework, the overarching research... brings together various elements developed in the thesis It summarises the study’s main findings and presents conclusions and implications linking them with the overall research purpose and research questions The chapter also reflects on the theoretical framework and describes the extent to which the framework has effectively helped to explain GCP working and whether GCP had built social capital Finally,... between Tanganyika-Mainland and Zanzibar-Island With the attainment of independence, the newly formed government intended to get rid of the colonial legacy, a move that had started 3 Although the term GCP is a modern phenomenon that started to be used widely in the early 1990s, in this study it is used throughout the thesis (even in analysing working together in the ujamaa era during 1960s to early 1980s)... (soon after independence) upon which the community development practice and the development of education in Tanzania are shaped The third chapter provides the review of literature based on issues which emerged in the wider perspective of community development, community participation and partnership working in the context of GCP working Firstly, the chapter discusses the concept and practice of community... through the colonial education system (Lema et al., 2006) Nyerere (1967) had been clear that education must instil in individuals a sense of commitment to the whole community by inculcating the social goals of living and working together for the common good The implementation of ESR policy called for a high contribution from the community As such, education, people’s lives and the community were integrated . for education provision? 1.4 Scope of the study As noted above, the aim of this thesis is to explore the nature of GCP in education provision at rural levels in Tanzania. The scope of the. Amina Nasibu Kamando, hereby declare that the doctoral thesis entitled, Government-Community Partnership in the Provision of Education in Rural Tanzania , is a result of my original and independent. Government-Community Partnership in the Provision of Education in Rural Tanzania Amina Nasibu Kamando Cert. Ed. (Mandaka TTC, Tanzania) ; Diploma Adult Education (Institute of Adult Education,