Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ theses@gla.ac.uk Campbell, Patricia F. (2014) ‘The shack becomes the house, the slum becomes the suburb and the slum dweller becomes the citizen’: experiencing abandon and seeking legitimacy in Dar es Salaam. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5612/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given ‘The shack becomes the house, the slum becomes the suburb and the slum dweller becomes the citizen’: experiencing abandon and seeking legitimacy in Dar es Salaam Patricia F. Campbell Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) School of Geographical and Earth Sciences College of Science and Engineering University of Glasgow October 2014 i"|"Page" "" Abstract This thesis considers the (over)promotion of formal home ownership, and the parallel neglect of rental housing, in international development policy and practice. Using a qualitative methodology, which incorporates policy analysis, as well as interviews and focus groups with key informants and informal residents, this research has moved beyond broad, singular conceptualisations of the ‘slum’. Instead, this study offers an insight into the multiple lived experiences of informal urban housing, in the context of a tenure-biased policy landscape. Research with informal residents was carried out exclusively with members of community-led groups who are in the process of resettling to formal plots on the margins of Dar es Salaam city. Drawing upon Foucaultian governmentality scholarship, the findings of this study highlight the centrality of housing tenure in notions of being counted, recognition and urban citizenship. The research findings highlight the complexities of informal urban housing, drawing particular attention to the everyday realities of renting shelter in the urban private rental market. In exploring the lived realities of informal housing in Dar es Salaam, this thesis uncovers the everyday realities of a wholesale neglect of the private rental sector in policy and the lack of recognition of private renters by the Tanzanian state. Using two distinct case-studies of forced eviction in Dar es Salaam, this thesis interrogates the process and management of eviction, demonstrating the centrality of tenure in determining the validity of claims for state support and recognition and in shaping state-citizen relations. In engaging with members of community-led groups that are resettling, and have resettled, to formal plots on the urban fringe, this thesis further scrutinises the positioning of individual, formal home ownership as a universal normative ideal. This research considers resettlement as a considered strategy by informal residents to achieve a sense of belonging in Dar es Salaam, a performance of citizenship. Yet, this thesis questions ‘resettlement’ as an optimum strategy for securing an officially recognised place in the city. This thesis will consider the complex hopes, dreams and trade-offs made in decisions to resettle and consider the implications of resettlement for notions of a right to the city. ii"|"Page" " Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………… …… i Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………….ii List of Figures, Tables and Maps…………………………………………………… v List of Abbreviations and Acronyms……………………………………………… vii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………… ix Author’s Declaration……………………………………………………………… …xi Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………….1 Setting the Context………………………………………………………………………1 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………………………5 Chapter Two: Governing Development………………………………………………8 Neoliberal Governmentality………………………………………………………… 10 Conceptualising ‘Power’ in Governmentality……………………………………… 15 ‘The Population as Datum’…………………………………………………………… 17 Governmentality Beyond the West 22 Discursive Governmentality……………………………………………………………24 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… … 28 Chapter Three: Negotiating Urban Citizenship…………………………………….29 The Normalisation of Home ownership……………………………………………… 30 The Property Rights Paradigm…………………………………………………………36 Intersections of (In)formality, Property and Citizenship……………………………….45 Urban Citizenship 48 Performing Citizenship 55 Conclusion 57 Chapter Four: Methodology………………………………………………………….58 Fieldwork Design………………………………………………………………………58 Empirical Setting……………………………………………………………………….60 Selection of Case-Studies………………………………………………………………62 Methods…………………………………………………………………………… 69 Analytical Strategy…………………………………………………………………… 86 iii"|"Page" " Methodological Challenges………………………………………………………… 89 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………………… 91 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………… 95 Chapter Five: Mortgaging the Continent of Dreams…………………………… 97 A History of Governing Urban Housing in Tanzania……………………………… 99 The Disappearance of Private Rental…………………………………………………119 Overselling Individual Home ownership.……………………… ………………… 122 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 131 Chapter Six: Counting and Being Counted……………………………………… 134 Renting a Room in Informal Dar es Salaam……………………………………… 136 The First Step or the Last Resort? 138 Challenges Associated with the Cost of Rent……………………………………… 145 Contracts, Domestic Power Relations and a Lack of Organisation………………… 152 Counting, Valuing and Knowing the Flood of Tenants……………………………….155 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 169 Chapter Seven: Making Way for the Future………………………………………171 The Kurasini Area Redevelopment Plan…………………………………………… 174 ‘Sensitizing’ Residents 183 Valuing Residents and Compensating Loss……………………………………… 190 Resettlement and the Value of Formal Plots………………………………………….199 Counting Ourselves and Making Ourselves Count? 202 Exorcising the Spectre of Insecurity? 206 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….210 Chapter Eight: Chasing the ‘Tanzanian Dream’………………………………….212 Resettlement as a Strategy of the Urban Poor……………………………………… 213 Why Build ‘Dream Houses’ in Dar es Salaam? 218 Escaping the ‘Squattered Places’…………………………………………………… 222 Securing Household Economies through Home ownership……………………… 227 New Life in the Chamazi Resettlement Site………………………………………… 231 Selling Peripheral Home ownership in Neoliberal Tanzania…………………………242 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 253 iv"|"Page" " Chapter Nine: Conclusions and Further Considerations…………………………255 Overselling Home ownership and the Policy Neglect of Rental Housing……… ….255 Everyday Implications of the Policy Neglect of Rental Housing…………………… 257 Negotiating Neglect by Moving to the Formal Fringe…………………………… 262 Theoretical Contributions 265 Policy Implications………………………………………………………………… 269 Limitations of Research and Recommendations for Future Research……………… 273 Appendix A………………………………………………………………………… 275 Appendix B………………………………………………………………………… 277 Appendix C………………………………………………………………………… 278 Reference List…………………………………………………………………… 280 v"|"Page" "" List of Figures, Tables and Maps Figures Figure 3.1 The ILD bridge model Figure 4.1 Photograph of an informal savings group meeting Figure 4.2 Photograph of an informal savings group meeting Figure 4.3 Photograph of being taught to make food by a TUPF member Figure 4.4 Photograph of the Tutunzane group office Figure 4.5 Photograph showing an in-depth group discussion Figure 4.6 Photograph showing an in-depth group discussion Figure 4.7 Photograph showing me making roof tiles with a TUPF member Figure 4.8 Image showing the development of the coding scheme Figure 4.9 Image showing the coded transcripts Figure 4.10 Image of the ‘mind map’ used to structure results Figure 5.1 Photograph of ‘European’ housing at Oysterbay, Dar es Salaam Figure 5.2 Photograph showing NHC high-rise flats in Mwenge Figure 5.3 Photograph showing NHC high-rise flats in Ubungo Figure 5.4 Illustration from the Economist Figure 6.1 Floor plan of an urban Swahili house Figure 6.2 Annotated areal image of the Msimbazi valley Figure 6.3 Newspaper articles about the 2011 floods Figure 6.4 Photograph of the Mabwepande resettlement site being constructed Figure 6.5 Photograph of the occupied Mabwepande resettlement camp Figure 7.1 Photograph of the central Dar es Salaam skyline Figure 7.2 Photograph showing demolished homes in Kurasini Figure 7.3 Photograph showing demolished homes in Kurasini vi"|"Page" " Figure 7.4 Photograph of informal housing in Kurasini Figure 7.5 Photographs of informal homes marked for eviction Figure 7.6 Images of the Kigamboni New City plans Figure 8.1 Image of the plot at Chamazi Figure 8.2 Plans for settlement development at Chamazi Figure 8.3 Example floor plan of a resettlement home in Chamazi Figure 8.4 Photograph of the Chamazi site in 2011 Figure 8.5 Photographs of construction on the Chamazi site Figure 8.6 Photographs of site visits to Mwasonga Figure 8.7 Photograph of a site visit to Mwasonga Tables Table 4.1 Breakdown of interview respondents Table 4.2 Breakdown of key respondents interviewed Table 4.3 Breakdown of key documents analysed Table 5.1 Reproduced from World Bank, ‘the dos and don’ts in enabling housing markets’ Table 8.1 Reproduced from CCI ‘Affordability Matrix/Scenario for Kurasini/Chamazi Housing Scheme Maps Map 4.1 Map of Dar es Salaam indicating field sites Map 4.2 Map of the location of the Chamazi resettlement site relative to Kurasini Map 7.1 Map of the informal areas affected by the Kurasini Area Redevelopment Plan ! vii"|"Page" " List of Abbreviations and Acronyms AUHF African Union for Housing Finance BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CBO Community-based Organisation CCI Centre for Community Initiatives CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CEO Chief Executive Officer CIUP City Infrastructure Upgrading Programme CML Council of Mortgage Lenders COHRE Centre for Housing Rights and Evictions COSTECH Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology CSO Civil Society Organisation DFID Department for International Development ESRC Economic and Social Research Council FSDT Financial Sector Deepening Trust HAFOTA Habitat Forum Tanzania HSP Human Settlements Policy IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ILD Institute of Liberty and Democracy IUT International Union of Tenants KARD Kurasini Area Redevelopment Plan LHRC Legal and Human Rights Centre MDGs Millennium Development Goals MLHHSD Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlement Development NGO Non-governmental Organisation NHC National Housing Corporation PBFB Property and Business Formalisation Programme RRA Rent Restriction Act SACCOS Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies viii"|"Page" " SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SDI Shack/Slum Dwellers International SUF Slum Upgrading Facility TANESCO Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited TBRU Tanzania Building Research Unit TEU Tanzania Economic Update THB Tanzania Housing Bank TMRC Tanzania Mortgage Refinancing Company TPA Tanzania Ports Authority TRC Tanzania Railways Corporation TTA Tanzania Tenants Association TUPF Tanzanian Urban Poor Federation UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements UPFI Urban Poor Fund International WAT/HST Women’s Advancement Trust/Human Settlements Trust [...]... ‘Counting and Being Counted: Rental Housing in Dar es Salaam , uses interview and group discussion material to consider experiences of informal housing, in the context of this policy and legal vacuum This chapter introduces the specific organisation of the private rental sector in Dar es Salaam and presents findings regarding the routes to access housing, and paying for and remaining in rental housing in. .. moved to resettlement sites, I will consider the complex trade-offs made by urban residents in resettling and question the implications of this strategy for notions of rights to the (inner) city Finally, Chapter Nine, ‘Conclusions and Further Considerations’, will provide a summary of the main empirical findings of this research, and consider the implications of the findings for understandings of informal... techniques of government He outlines this in the following extract, ‘ the first methodological principle is to move outside the institution and replace it with the overall point of view, the technology of power the second principle is to substitute the external point of view of strategies and tactics for the internal point of view of the function Finally, the third decentering, the third shift to the. .. on the ‘self esteem’ movement provides an account of the transferral for successes and failures onto responsibilised individuals, emphasising the techniques of self-improvement that individuals enact on themselves She suggests that the ‘terrain of the self’ is the focus of multiple forces of power, both external and internal Through techniques of self-improvement, the angle of possible political and. .. experiencing eviction first hand and the implications of multifarious experiences on feelings of security and belonging in the  |  P a g e   6     city This chapter seeks to uncover the context through which voluntary resettlement to formal plots on the periphery of the city becomes considered as the only route for some informal residents seeking permanence in Dar es Salaam (Datta, 2012) The final empirical... within an international urban agenda • To explore the impact of any disproportionate focus on formal home ownership on the lived realities of informal housing in Dar es Salaam • To investigate the actions of community-led groups in resettling to formal housing on the urban fringe  |  P a g e   4     Thesis Outline Chapter Two, ‘Governing Development’, the first of two conceptual chapters, provides a theoretical... objective, technical and beyond politics This is particularly salient in this study, which is in part interested in the process of making informal populations known By locating the process of counting informal populations (and neglecting to count others) in an empirical context, the exclusionary potential of counting and the value-laden process of deciding what information to gather can be made visible... case study, that this thesis aims to critically examine the privileging of formal, individual home ownership in international housing policy and practice In attempting to fulfil this aim, this thesis will respond to the following objectives; • To analyse the extent to which there is a privileging of home ownership, and the parallel neglect of private rental housing, in Tanzanian housing policy • To embed... the third shift to the outside, concerns the object Taking the point of view of the disciplines involved refusing to give oneself a ready-made object, be it mental illness, delinquency, or sexuality It involved not seeking to measure institutions, practices and knowledges in terms of the criteria and norms of an already given object Instead, it involved grasping the movement by which a field of truth... or the art of government’, in the lecture series Security, Territory and Population delivered at the College de France In developing the governmentality concept, Foucault diverges somewhat from his earlier work in Discipline and Punish, which sought to understand how the state controls individuals, producing ‘docile bodies’ through disciplinary techniques In Discipline and Punish, Foucault focuses . awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given The shack becomes the house, the slum becomes the suburb and the slum dweller becomes the citizen’: experiencing abandon and seeking. Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ theses@gla.ac.uk Campbell, Patricia F. (2014) The shack becomes the house, the slum becomes the suburb and the slum dweller becomes the. the citizen’: experiencing abandon and seeking legitimacy in Dar es Salaam. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5612/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the