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Equivalence is one of the crucial issues in translation studies that have constantly received much attention of researchers since the birth of translation studies. Translation equivalence is linked to both linguistic and cultural aspects; however, in the thesis, equivalence is studied in the relation to culture. This paper attempted to discuss the importance and evaluate effects of cultural factors in the process of written translation. It was carried out into the problems of nonequivalence caused by cultural differences at word level from English into Vietnamese. In terms of its theoretical framework, the study was mainly based on Baker’s concepts (1992) about nonequivalence at word level. In the thesis, the research method of contrastive analysis was adopted to compare and contrast distinctive cultural features between two languages. Its purpose was to evaluate the degree of translatability that target language text can achieve and the degree of untranslatability, i.e. nonequivalence, between two languages. The research outcome confirmed that nonequivalence in the English – Vietnamese translation was associated with the existence of cultural factors in the source language text. In addition, the applicability of Baker’s classification about common problems could be found in the chapter of findings and discussion. Finally, crosscultural knowledge between English and Vietnamese was also demonstrated.
ABSTRACT Equivalence is one of the crucial issues in translation studies that have constantly received much attention of researchers since the birth of translation studies Translation equivalence is linked to both linguistic and cultural aspects; however, in the thesis, equivalence is studied in the relation to culture This paper attempted to discuss the importance and evaluate effects of cultural factors in the process of written translation It was carried out into the problems of non-equivalence caused by cultural differences at word level from English into Vietnamese In terms of its theoretical framework, the study was mainly based on Baker’s concepts (1992) about non-equivalence at word level In the thesis, the research method of contrastive analysis was adopted to compare and contrast distinctive cultural features between two languages Its purpose was to evaluate the degree of translatability that target language text can achieve and the degree of untranslatability, i.e non-equivalence, between two languages The research outcome confirmed that non-equivalence in the English – Vietnamese translation was associated with the existence of cultural factors in the source language text In addition, the applicability of Baker’s classification about common problems could be found in the chapter of findings and discussion Finally, cross-cultural knowledge between English and Vietnamese was also demonstrated i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACCEPTANCE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………… ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………… TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………… LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………… LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………… LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………… i ii iii iv vii viii ix CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the Study…………………………………………………………… 1.2 Aims of the Study and Research Questions……………………………………… 1.3 Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………… 1.4 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………… 1.5 Organization of the Study…………………………………………………………… 1 3 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Translation………………………………………………………………………… 2.2 Culture……………………………………………………………………………… 2.2.1 Definition of Culture………………………………………………………… 2.2.2 Cultural Categories………………………………………………………… 2.3 Translation and Culture…………………………………………………………… 2.4 The concepts of equivalence from different views of theorists…………………… 2.4.1 Jakobson’s concept of equivalence (1959)……………………………… 2.4.2 Nida and Taber’s formal and dynamic equivalences (1965)………………… 2.4.3 Catford (1965) and the introduction of translation shifts…………………… 2.4.4 Baker’s view on translation equivalence (1992)……………………………… 2.5 Non-equivalence at word level proposed by Baker (1992)………………………… 2.6 Strategies to overcome non-equivalence………………………………………….… 6 7 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 18 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Subjects of the study………………………………………………………………… 3.2 Data collection methods and procedures…………………………………………… 3.3 Data analysis methods and procedures……………………………………………… 20 20 21 22 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Untranslatability caused by culture – specific concepts…………………………… 4.1.1 Ecology……………………………………………………………………… 23 23 24 ii 4.1.2 Material culture…………………………………………………………… 4.1.3 Social culture………………………………………………………………… 4.1.4 Organizations, Customs, Ideas and Habits…………………….…………… 4.2 Problems relating to the source language…………………………………………… 4.2.1 Lack of lexical sets ………………………………………………………… 4.2.2 Different expressive meanings……………………………………………… 4.2.3 Specific forms in English…………………………………………………… 4.3 Problems relating to the target language…………………………………………… 4.3.1 Lack of superordinates (general words)…………………………………… 4.3.2 Lack of hyponyms (specific words) ………………………………………… 4.2.3 Differences in physical or interpersonal perspectives……………………… 4.4 Discussion of findings……………………………………………………………… 26 28 29 34 34 36 37 38 38 39 41 41 CHAPTER 5: SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION……………………………… 45 5.1 Suggestions to overcome the problems……………………………………………… 45 5.1.1 Translation by cultural substitution………………………………………… 45 5.1.2 Translating by explanation after a loan word……………………………… 46 5.1.3 Translating by a paraphrase………………………………………………… 5.1.4 Translating by omission………………………………………………… 5.1 Summary of findings………………………………………………………………… 5.2 Limitations of the study…………………………………………………………… 5.3 Suggestions for further studies……………………………………………………… 47 47 48 49 50 REFERENCES 51 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure Different equivalents for “bamboo” 26 Figure Possible translations of the pronoun “he” 34 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table Translations of the word “rice” into Vietnamese 25 Table Different meanings of rice in certain contexts 25 Table Related English words have the same equivalent 26 Table Translation of several culture-specific terms by cultural 28 borrowings Table Translation of words relating to religion 29 Table Vietnamese kinship terms 30 Table Possible translations of the term “aunt” into Vietnamese 31 Table First class of pronouns in Vietnamese 33 Table Comparison the use of plural and singular forms between 38 SL and TL Table 10 English equivalents for the word “đàn” in Vietnamese Table 11 Example of cultural substitution v from English 40 to 45 Vietnamese Table 12 Example of further explanation added in the TL 46 Table 13 Example of using paraphrasing in TL 47 Table 14 Example of omission in translation 49 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS SL: Source Language TL: Target Language ST: Source Text TT: Target Text CSCs: Culture-Specific Concepts OALD: Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Dictionary EVLD: English Vietnamese Lac Viet Dictionary vi vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the Study In the era of globalization, translation has become an important aspect for the development of the world culture and society since the need to exchange thoughts and opinions among different nations has been ever increasing It is considered a bridge among unfamiliar languages, indigenous cultures and experiences As stated by Newmark (1988) “translation has been instrumental in transmitting culture” (p 7), which means translation is the solution to challenges of cultural barriers among countries In Western translation theory, translation equivalence is a principal concept The theory of equivalence has been interpreted and approached in separate ways by translation theorists In his work on translation equivalence, Catford (1965) stresses the importance of equivalence in translation by stating that the nature of translation is “a replacement of a textual material in the source language (SL) by equivalent textual material in the target language (TL)” and adds that “central problem of translation practice is that of finding translation equivalents” (p 21) Approaching with a similar point, Leonardi (2000) also confirms that the notion of equivalence was undoubtedly one of the most problematic and controversial areas in the field of translation theory In addition, Nida and Taber (1969) highlight the importance of equivalence in translation theory They argue “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the SL message, first in meaning and secondly in terms of style” (p 12) In brief, equivalence is crucial to translation because it is closely linked to the process of transferring information in translation In general, the role of equivalence in the translation theories has drawn much attention of scholars, researchers and translators since the birth of translation studies in the late twentieth century Despite examining the issue in a relatively different view, this thesis, entitled “Non-Equivalence Relating to Cultural Differences at Word Level in English-Vietnamese Translation” was still dedicated to the subject of translation equivalence on a smaller scale It also aimed at raising the knowledge for translators when encountering English and Vietnamese documents and their awareness to the linguistic and cultural elements of the ST 1.2 Aims of the Study and Research questions This thesis was a methodical investigation into the subject of non-equivalence problems caused by cultural differences affecting the process of translating from English to Vietnamese The first aim of the research was to show the relationship between cultural differences and the occurrence of non-equivalence in EnglishVietnamese translation Secondly, based on Baker’s general theories (1992) in the field of translation, the thesis analyzed and evaluated the applicability of her theories to the case of English-Vietnamese translation More specifically, the study investigated the problems relating to cultural distinctions between Western countries and Vietnam, one representative of Eastern countries The study also provided answers to the two research questions: (1) What is the relationship between cultural differences and non-equivalence in the case of English-Vietnamese translation? (2) How could Baker’s theory about non-equivalence at word level (1992) be applied to the case of English-Vietnamese translation? Likewise, the study proposed possible strategies and general guidelines for achieving equivalence at word level in the two languages Last but not least, the study was expected to raise readers’ attention to the matter of culture in translation It should be noted that translation is a conscious process of linguistics learning as well as cultural knowledge revising In other words, translation is not about conveying single meanings based on word-for-word or sentence-for-sentence but rendering messages from one language into another indeed However, a lot of inexperienced translators may not properly appreciate the importance of the issue Therefore it is hoped that the study would give a modest contribution to the further strivings in translation practice among translators 1.3 Scope of the Study This paper examined the phenomena of non-equivalence involved in cultural differences in translation when translators convey information or ideas from English to Vietnamese It showed the ways the cultural variations have been transferred by translators between two languages Moreover, this research dealt with translation problems from English into Vietnamese only at the level of word instead of at various levels since word is the basic unit of meaning in linguistics The study mainly took an approach to typical words with high frequency of occurrence in two cultures when each of them stands separately or depends on a certain context An analysis was carried out into some specific sentences or paragraphs translated into Vietnamese at word level The study of their Vietnamese translations contributed to the clarification of the findings of the cultural contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese 1.4 Significance of the Study Language and culture are always in a state of flux over time As a result of their constant change and evolution, no complete theories are general and universal enough to cover every issue in the realm of language and culture Similarly, a great variety of research activities by scholars such as Peter Newmark, Susan Bassnett, Lawrence Venuti, etc in translation studies demonstrate the most popular matters which can be found in many languages Nevertheless, to some extents, the disadvantage is that those theories may not correctly and fully reflect existing problems in a specific language Therefore, the study could be regarded as a bridge between internationally recognized translation theories and their relevance and applicability to the case of English- mũ, tóc giả”), đeo ( “đeo kính, nhẫn, dây chuyền, cà vạt”), thắt (“thắt dây lưng, cà vạt”), thoa (“thoa son, kem chống nắng”), tô ( “tô son”), bôi (“bôi son, nước hoa”)… All the Vietnamese nouns above can collocate with “to wear” or “to put on” in English (Trinh, 2002) Therefore, when a translator encounters the word “to wear” or “to put on”, he should consider the nouns following them to make appropriate collocation in Vietnamese and avoid literal translation 4.3.2 Lack of hyponyms (specific terms) in the TL Baker (1992) shows an example about this problem In fact, the problem also exists in the case of English-Vietnamese translation Under “house”, English has an array of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many languages, for example “bungalow, cottage, croft, chalet, lodge, hut, mansion, manor, villa and hall” For illustration, in Vietnamese, definitions of “manor” and “villa” are not much different and both of them can be translated as “lâu đài, biệt thự” Translating “hall” into Vietnamese is not easy as well because the word is not equivalent to one exact term but to various lengthy phrases such as “phòng lớn, đại sảnh (trong lâu đài), phòng họp lớn, hội trường (để hội họp, hồ nhạc ), tồ (thị chính, tồ án ), trụ sở lớn (các nghiệp đồn ), phịng ăn lớn (ở trường học); phòng lên lớp, phòng đợi, hành lang cửa vào (của nhà lớn)” (LEVD, 2009) Regarding the rest, the features, locations and functions of “cottage, croft, chalet, lodge” make these words difficult to be properly translated into Vietnamese Similarly, Trinh (2002) shows one more relevant example “Cooking”, a superordinate in English, has many hyponyms such as “boil, roast, bake, brew, stew, braise, simmer, poach, grill, seal, glaze, prick, brown” but in Vietnamese culture, the lexical sets are “luộc, xào, chiên, rang, bác, rán, tráng, rim, nướng, nướng vỉ, hấp, hấp cách thủy, hầm, etc.” However, specific terms not equally match each other, resulting in the non-equivalence between the SL and TL 39 In contrast, English does not have the general word for “đàn” in Vietnamese English use different collective nouns for each kind of animals (See Table 10) No English Vietnamese A flock of sheep Một đàn cừu A herd of cows Một đàn bò A brood of chicken Một đàn gà A flight of pigeons Một đàn chim bồ câu A school of fish Một đàn cá A colony of ants Một đàn kiến A swarm of ants Một đàn kiến A pack of dogs Một đàn chó A pride of lions Một đàn sư tử 10 A troop of monkeys Một đàn khỉ Table 10: English equivalents for the word “đàn” in Vietnamese One more example is suggested by Nguyen (2001) in Translation 1&2; there is a distinction among mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles in English Specifically, motorcycles feature larger wheels and engines than both mopeds and scooters Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles as “xe máy” Translators should be added some background information in special cases for high accuracy For example, mopeds can be translated into a long phrase like “xe máy có bàn đạp động chạy xăng, công suất thấp” (EVLD, 2013) 4.3.3 Differences in physical or interpersonal perspectives 40 In English, the usage of “come” and “go” is put in the relation to the position of speaker Specifically, “come” means getting closer towards the speaker’s position, while “go” means travelling to another place away from the speaker’s position The similar differences can be found in other pairs such as “do-make” and “take-bring” Nevertheless, Vietnamese does not make such a distinction Another example is illustrated by the word “give”, Vietnamese makes a distinction on whom to be given If it refers to the relationship of the young to the older or the elder with great respect, Vietnamese use “biếu, tặng, cống, nạp” On the contrary, “cho” is used when people at older age or higher status give something to the young The equivalents “đưa” or “tặng” imply an intimate relationship between the giver and the sender 4.4 Discussion of the findings In the first part, to further clarify the taxonomy and stand out the roles of culture in translation, the researcher added the Newmark’s classification in cultural elements (1988) to the Baker’s first problem Therefore, CSCs were classified into different groups such as unique cuisines or recipes, social customs, religious belief in English speaking countries in the foundation of Newmark’s ideas This method examined Baker’s theory of CSCs (1992) in a range of cultural categories The part also provided reasons and arguments for the meaning loss in translation due to cultural differences to prove the correctness in Baker’s theory From the arguments and evidence in the thesis, it is concluded that cultural differences are among reasons for non-equivalence in English-Vietnamese translation CSCs could be found in all four main cultural categories In other words, differences in culture cause an absence of a number of specific terms or result in equivalence at low level between two languages Therefore, the unstranslatabilty caused by cultural factors is entirely possible in the case of English-Vietnamese translation To some extents, the findings were differrent from Catford’s viewpoint on “cultural untranslatabilty” He denies its occurrence and 41 importance with the argument that “cultural untranslatabity is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability” (p 103) However, Bassnett (1980) criticizes that “Catford starts from different premises, and because he does not go far enough in considering the dynamic nature of language and culture” and his viewpoint are “problematic”(p 41) As in prior review, Baker (1992) suggests eleven problems in non-equivalence at word level that translators may encounter With a detailed classification, she presents the most common and difficult problems in translation Moreover, her analysis is not limited to one specific SL and TL but applied to various languages Many analyzed cultural phenomena in translation involve in English as the SL and one of the Oriental languages such as Chinese, Japanese, Indonesian, etc as the TL Thanks to certain similarities in cultural awareness between Vietnamese and other Oriental languages, several notions or concepts are relatively recognized in the similar or same way among those languages The researcher took advantage of applicable cases to EnglishVietnamese translation The result was that a lot of Baker’s examples about translating English into another language in Asia or even into a certain European country could be applied to the case of English-Vietnamese translation to some extent For example, difficulty in translating the word “exotic” from English into Vietnamese, no equivalents for some hyponyms of the word “house” in English, hindrances in English pairs of words showing physical perspective like “come/go”, “take/bring” This was an evidence for the reliability and precision that can be found in Baker’s taxonomy In short, a constellation of eleven problems was proven as adequate description for translation problems in a lot of languages In the next two parts of the chapter, instead of listing the rest of problems according to Baker (1992), the researcher divided problems into two categories; whether they lie in the SL or originate from the TL This method contributed to make a more succinct classification and considers whether each problem is more relevant to 42 the SL or TL However, the problem that is “the source and TL make different distinctions in meaning” (problem A) has some similar ideas with problems that belong to “differences in physical or interpersonal perspective” (problem B) and “differences in expressive meanings” (problem C) Problem A refers to the imbalance in the number of distinctions in meaning between the SL and TL In other words, one language may not stress on or clarify important distinctions in meaning as the other does However, in the researcher’s standpoint, problem B and problem C are the causes of “different distinctions” in problem A Each culture has different views to recognize the same phenomena in its own community, which leads to distinctions in building up the meaning of the word Moreover, problem B and problem C also represent the specific cases of disproportion in meaning between the ST word and the TT word Differences in the way that things or people in relation to one another or to a place are seen and expressive meaning in a given context were proven to pose translation problems in the previous part As the purpose of the study is to investigate major features of English that cause non-equivalence in English-Vietnamese translation, the last problem, the use of loan words in the ST, was skipped “Differences in form” and “differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms” that cause translation problems were put into the same category knows as “differences in specific forms” Apart from the slight change in headings of each section, the central ideas suggested by Baker (1992) remained the same Her theory about non-equivalence at word level shows a lot of common problems in English-Vietnamese translation In addition, its scope covers a wide spread of word types, namely, from separate words that are independent from the context such as “dragon”, “rice”, “problems”, “carry”, “give”, “come”, “go”, etc to words cited from a specific text as shown in the abovementioned examples 43 From the findings of the research, it can be concluded that the theory about nonequivalence suggested by Baker (1992) is highly applicable to the case of EnglishVietnamese translation CHAPTER 5: SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Suggestions to overcome the problems Based on the findings, the reseach came to the conclusion that non-equivalence at word level between English and Vietnamese is undoubtedly inevitable The following strategies generalized by Baker (1992) can be applied to deal with various types of non-equivalence at word level 44 5.1.1 Translation by cultural substitution The advantage of using this strategy is that it gives the readers a concept which they can easily identify, familiar and appealing to them (Baker 1992, p 31) However, the TL words still have a similar impact on the target reader Trinh (2002) gives some examples to illustrate “HSC” –the abbreviation of Higher School Certificate in New South Wale should be translated as “bằng tú tài Úc” “Bằng tốt nghiệp phổ thông trung học Úc” “Junior High School” and “Senior High School” in the United State of America are equivalent to “Trường Trung Học Cơ Sở” and “Trường Trung Học PhổThông” in Vietnam No Source Text Target text The two houses are 100 yards apart Hai nhà cách chừng 100 thước The baby weighs six pounds Đứa bé hai kí bảy Table 11: Example of cultural substitution from English to Vietnamese In Table 11, translators should consider the appropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest changes to make them more culturally appropriate For the native Vietnamese living in Vietnam “yard” and “pound” are not popular measurement units If those words are directly translated, they may cause problems of comprehension for Vietnamese 5.1.2 Translating by explanation after a loan word Using an explanation after a loan word is very useful when the word is entirely unknown in TL 45 For instance, HIV and AIDS are frequently used in Vietnam for a long time They can be easily understood by Vietnamese readers so it is unneccesary to add further explanation into the TTs Nevertheless, in the case that a new loan word is used the first time in the text, translators should give some explanation However, the acronym, GER, is not a common medical term among people, so it is better to give an explanation for the term (See Table 12) Source text Target text “Eating shortly before bedtime may “Ăn nhẹ trước lúc ngủ kích thích encourage gastroeophalegeal reflux chứng hồi lưu chất ăn uống từ bao (GER) in healthy people – and the tử trở lên thực quản (GER) heartburn associated with it”, (Nguyen & người khỏe mạnh – chứng ợ nóng kèm Hoang, 2013, p 100) theo chứng vừa nêu trên”, (Nguyen & Hoang, 2013, p 103) Table 12: Example of further explanation added in the target language 5.1.3 Translating by a paraphrase The main advantage of translation by paraphrase is that it is possible to achieve a high level of precision in specifying the meaning of a word or concept that poses difficulties in translation (Baker 1992, p 40) For example: Source Text Target Text “Perhaps because his training enveloped “Có lẽ việc khổ luyện nhiều khiến anh him to the point of fanaticism, he was say mê môn võ thuật đến mức eventually able to refine, distill and cuồng tín, cuối anh tạo cho mature into a philosopher, technician and khả chắt lọc, tinh luyện đạt 46 innovator of the martial arts”, (Nguyen & tới độ chín để trở thành triết gia, Hoang, 2013, p 76) bậc thầy… người tiến hành đổi môn võ thuật”, (Nguyen & Hoang, 2013, p 78 &79) Table 13: Example of using paraphrasing in TL In table 13, instead of using an equivalent word to the ST word “fanaticism”, the translators paraphrase it The reason is this strategy the term is known but not lexicalized in the TL This strategy is also applicable for loan words and complex words 5.1.4 Translating by omission This strategy is used when “a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text” (Baker 1992, p 40) Translators can omit an unnecessary word in ST without changing the content of the TT For example: Source Text Target Text “Over the past few days, South Korean “Mấy ngày qua Tổng thống Nam Triều President Kim Young Sam has multiplied Tiên Kim Young Sam có public expressions of express deep phát biểu công khai mối quan tâm sâu concern at what Seoul sees as a softening sắc đến điều mà Seoul nhìn nhận vị of Washington’s position in the talks”, trí Washington cuôc hội đàm”, (Nguyen & Hoang, 2013, p 62) (Nguyen & Hoang, 2013, p 64&65) Table 14: Example of omission in translation 47 In Table 14, the translators omit words not essential to the meaning or impact of the text “Express” is adverb meaning “clearly and openly stated” (OALD, 2011) Thus, its meaning can be found in the word “public” The shorter version still conveys adequate implication to readers For differences in plural forms (suffixes “_s” or “_es” in English and markers: “các” or “những” in Vietnamese) between two languages, Trinh (2002) states that Vietnamese translation should not keep all plural noun markers to convey the notion of plurality as in the ST The reason is using them automatically is unnatural and lengthy to Vietnamese people 5.2 Summary of findings From the analysis and presentation in the prior part, Baker’s theory in 1992 about non-equivalence at word level was divided into three large parts, namely, cultural untranslatability, problems involving the SL (English) and problems belonging to the TL (Vietnamese) The research was limited to one specific case: English as a SL and Vietnamese as TL First, the research examined the Baker’s term CSCs (1992) and analyzed the effects of cultural differences on non-equivalence in English-Vietnamese translation It is concluded that cultural differences, especially the obvious existence of CSCs, resulted in non-equivalence in the case of English-Vietnamese translation Secondly, the research proved the precision and high applicability Baker’s scheme (1992) in indicating non-equivalence problems at word level in the case of English-Vietnamese translation Although there were some slight changes in headings of each part against Baker’s taxonomy (1992), her key concepts did not change 5.3 Limitations of the study 48 The study was unable to avoid certain limitations Firstly, culture is known as a dramatically broad scope so it is necessary to collect a great amount of data to prove the precision of the theory However, due to time and length of the research, data in the thesis did not cover all outstanding cultural aspects in translation Secondly, the thesis did not explore all strategies proposed by Baker (1992) but some outstanding ones to overcome the studied problems It surely would have been more useful if the researcher had conducted an in-depth analysis Furthermore, experience in translation plays a crucial role That is a useful tool gained for a period of time that helps translators overcome difficulties in translation Obviously, the researcher is not yet a professional translator but only on the way to her self-improvement in knowledge and skills, so the analysis may not be detailed and specialized and certain errors are inevitable Nevertheless, the research was done with much effort to make a very small contribution to the development of translation studies about equivalence 5.4 Suggestion for further study Cultural problems causing non-equivalence in the thesis were put into different categories and studied in both the SL and TL However, the next study can be conducted into cultural problems occurring in the SL only or TL only The study covered a wide spread of cultural words which belongs to four big cultural categories: ecology, material culture, social culture, organizations, customs, procedures, concepts, habits In fact, further studies can explore more details in each 49 category or limit the number of categories depending on researcher’s interest and knowledge The thesis aimed at Baker’s theory about non-equivalence at word level, one of her famous translation 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Retrieved April 20, 2013 from: http://bttvhqn.blogspot.com/2012/09/tai-sao-co-nuoc-qua-giau-va-conuoc- qua.html Ray, M K (2008) Studies In Translation (2nd ed.) New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Sutter, D J (2009) English gets millionth word on Wednesday Technology Report Retrieved April 24, 2013 from: http://www.edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/06/10/million.words/ Wilss, W (1982.) The Science of Translation Stuttgart: Gunter Narr verlag Tubingen 53 ... breathing problems” should not be translated as ? ?những trẻ sinh non thường gặp chứng khó thở” (Trinh, 2002) Omitting plural forms ? ?những? ??, “các” does not change the main content of the ST because... strategies and suggestions, the data was mainly taken from the bilingual book “Hướng dẫn đọc dịch báo chí Anh Việt? ?? by bright translators (Nguyen & Hoang, 2013) in which translation strategies were... of nonequivalence In the fourth part about – “Đi tìm tương đương? ?? (How to achieve equivalence) one of the central parts of his article, he adopts four out of eleven problems in Baker’s taxonomy