afferent system see sensory afferents Afghanistan 107 Africa 51, 213 agonist drugs 33–4, 77, 111, 121–4, 129–30, 161 agoraphobia 129 agranulocytosis 167 AIDS 47, 101, 148 akathisia 166 albumin–bound drugs 30, 33–4, 180–1 ‘‘alco-pops’’ 228 alcohol 4, 5, 6–8, 30–1, 95, 119–27, 133–49, 225–30, 256 see also alcoholism absorption rates 122–3 administration routes 28–9, 120, 139–40 anxiety 120–1, 135–6, 138–42, 225–6 aversion therapy 31 background 4, 5, 6–8, 30–1, 95, 119–27, 133–49, 225–30, 256 barbiturates 127 behavioural issues 119, 120–1, 122, 125–7, 133–49, 225–7 binge drinkers 7, 133, 135–6, 227 blood alcohol concentration 120–6 cannabis 93, 95–6 children 30, 133–4, 137–8, 140, 144, 228, 230 cognitive effects 95, 121–7, 134–42, 225–7 coronary heart disease 120, 134, 140 cost–benefit ratio 227 crime 119, 125, 138 deaths 36, 125–6, 137–40, 227 delusions 139 dependence 7–8, 31, 34, 36, 119, 120–1, 133–49, 225–30 depression 120–1, 138–9 detoxification 34, 134, 148 disinhibitory effects 119, 134–5, 225–6 dosage issues 228 driving tests 119, 123–6 elimination processes 32 enzymatic induction problems 31, 134–5 females 120, 122, 134, 138, 140 fertility effects 120 fetal alcohol syndrome 30, 140 first-time usage 7, 122–3 genetic predispositions 135–6, 145 half-life 123 hallucinations 139 health consequences 36, 120–1, 125–6, 127, 133–49, 225–7, 230 heavy drinkers 135, 227 historical background 3–4, 120–1, 133, 228 hypertension 140 liver 31, 136, 139–40 low and alcohol-free products 230 main properties 4, 6–8, 95, 119–27, 133–49, 225–7 male adolescents 137–8 memory 120–1, 124–7, 134–5, 140–1 metabolism processes 31, 109, 121–4, 136, 139–40 moderate drinking 134–6 morbid jealousy 139 myopia 125 negative effects 7–8, 30, 95, 119–21, 133–49, 225–30 nervous system consequences 140–1, 225–6 neurochemistry 121–4, 137, 143 nicotine effects 68–9 osteoporosis 140 peripheral neuritis 140 physiological effects 124–7, 133–49, 225–7 positive effects 7, 134, 225–7, 229 problem drinking 135–42, 227 psychological effects 120–1, 123–7, 133–49, 225–7 recommended safe levels 120, 134–5 schizophrenia 139 sexual performance 120, 140 social acceptability 134–5, 226, 230 social costs 134, 138–40, 225–30 statistics 5, 120–1, 134–5, 138–42 stomach 139–40 suicides 138 taxation 105 tolerance 35, 119, 124, 135–6, 144, 225–7 trends 5, 120–1, 134–5, 138–9, 227–8 USA trends 5 violence 120–1, 125, 138–9 withdrawal symptoms 36, 101, 119–21, 135–6, 138–9, 144 Alcohol Concern 134, 256 292 Index alcoholic dementia 140–1 alcoholic hepatitis 139 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) 141 alcoholism 7–8, 31, 34, 36, 119, 120–1, 133–49, 225–6 see also alcohol acamprosate 142 Alcoholics Anonymous 141 background 119, 120–1, 133–49, 225–6 biochemical tests 136 brain 140–1 brief intervention 142 children 133–4, 137–8, 140 cognitive behavioural therapy 141, 148 cognitive decline 140–1 couples therapy 142 definition 135 diagnostic tools 135–6 DSM-IV (Diagnostic Statistical Manual) 135–6 factors 135–7 health consequences 139–41 Korsakoff’s syndrome 140 Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test 136 motivational enhancement therapy 141–2 naltrexone 142, 148 nervous system consequences 140–1 neuropharmacology 137 ondansetron 142 relapse problems 141–2 sertraline 142 symptoms 135–7 treatments 141–2, 148 Wernicke’s encephalopathy 140 alertness, drug uses 4, 6, 7, 41–53, 73–4, 130, 223–6 alkaloids 6, 103–4, 119 alleles, concepts 197–8 Alzheimer’s disease 5, 15, 35, 157, 187–204, 205, 208–10, 232, 257 see also dementia; nootropics ADAS-cog scores 195–6 animal models 193 anti-inflammatory drugs 200–1 antioxidants 187, 199–201 apolipoprotein E 187, 198–9 Auguste D. 188 background 5, 187–204, 208–10, 232, 257 carers 189, 193 causes 187, 193–4 cholinergic systems 187, 190–2, 193–6, 232 cholinesterase inhibitors 187, 193–6 diagnosis 196 drug uses 5, 187–201, 208–10 females 188, 200 folate 200 future prospects 199–201, 208, 232 genetic predispositions 187, 198–9 historical background 187–8, 196 human drug trials 193 memory aids 192 Mini-Mental State Examination 195 multi-factor models 193–4 nerve growth factor 200–1 neural plaques 187, 194, 196–9 neurobiological changes 189–90 neuroimaging data 190 oestrogen 200 pharmacotherapy 193 psychological effects 189–201 psychopharmacological prospects 199–201, 232–3 reality orientation 192–3 risk factors 193–4 secondary effects 189 selective reminiscences 193 social costs 187–8 statistics 187–9 symptoms 187–9 tangles 187, 194, 196–201 vitamins 187, 199, 200–1 American Psychiatric Association (APA), Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM–IV) 135–6, 172–3 amines 6, 19–22, 33–4, 45, 71, 161, 171, 174–84 amino acids 19–20, 109 amitriptyline 177–8, 180 ammonia 57 AMP see adenosine mono phosphate amphetamines 4–6, 21, 33, 41, 43–50, 112, 144, 147, 160–1, 179, 223–4, 226, 229 see also MDMA administration routes 28, 41, 44–5, 47 Index 293 background 5, 43, 44–5, 144, 147, 155, 160–1, 223–4, 226, 229 clinical uses 43, 48–50 cocaine 6, 45, 46 deaths 47 delusions 160–1 dependence 26, 41, 43–4, 46–8, 69, 144, 147, 223–4, 226, 229 health consequences 46–8, 223–4 main properties 4, 6, 41, 43–50, 160–1, 223–4, 229 novice users 45–6 psychological effects 45–6, 147, 155, 160–1, 223–4, 226 relapse problems 48 schizophrenia 160–1 statistics 5, 43, 106 tolerance 35–6, 46–8, 223–4, 226 trends 5, 43, 49–50, 106, 223–4 uses 4, 6, 41, 43–50 violence 45–6 amputations, tobacco usage 57–9 amygdala, concepts 13, 162, 191, 197 amyloid b protein 196–201 amyloid precursor protein (APP) 197–201 anabolism, concepts 11 analgesic effects 4, 6, 33–4, 85, 90, 92–3, 100, 103–17, 143, 146 anandamide 19–20, 90 cannabis 90, 100 opiates 103–17, 143, 225 anandamide 90 ‘‘angel dust’’ see phencyclidine anhedonia 146, 173 animal models, Alzheimer’s disease 193 animal toxins 17 aniracetam 208 anorectic drugs 50 anoxia 154, 159 ANS see autonomic nervous system antagonists, concepts 34, 83, 111, 115–16, 121–4, 161, 167–8, 206–7 anterior cingulate, Alzheimer’s disease 190–2 anti-inflammatory drugs, Alzheimer’s disease 200–1 anti-inflammatory effects, cannabis 100 anticholinergic ingredients 83 anticholinesterases 35, 193–6, 201 anticonvulsants 31, 91, 121, 127–9 antidepressants 4–5, 7, 30–1, 34, 37–8, 48–9, 171–87, 209, 231, 257 see also depression; fluoxetine; imipramine administration routes 28 background 4, 171–84, 209, 231, 257 death rate statistics 180 dependence 179 first-generation antidepressants 176–9, 231 future prospects 181–4 historical background 5, 48–9, 171, 174–8, 179–80, 231 list 4, 176–7 main properties 4, 7, 171–84 mechanisms 175–8 negative effects 7, 171, 177–80 neurochemical effects 176–81 non-respondents 178 positive effects 7, 171–84, 231 selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors 177, 181 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 171, 177, 179–81 serotonin/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors 177, 181 tricyclic antidepressants 176–8, 182, 183 antiepileptic drugs 171, 183–4 antihypertensive actions 33 antioxidants, Alzheimer’s disease 187, 199–201 antipsychiatry theories 154 antipsychotics 4–7, 14, 27, 34, 75, 153–73, 230–1, 256 see also chlorpromazine; clozapine; haloperidol; risperidone administration routes 27–8, 166–7 atypical neuroleptics 167–9 background 4–7, 153–70, 230–1, 256 complementary support 5, 153–7, 168–9 costs 157, 168 dosage reductions 166–7 future developments 169–70 historical background 5, 153–4, 160–1, 164–9, 230–1 list 4, 165–9 294 Index amphetamines (cont.) LSD counteractions 75 main properties 4, 7, 153–70 negative effects 7, 166–8 positive effects 7, 75, 153–70, 230–1 statistics 153, 157, 164–9 weight gains 168 anxiety alcohol 120–7, 135–6, 138–42, 225–6 caffeinism 52–3 cannabis 92–3, 97, 101 classifications table 129 CNS depressants 119–30 cocaine use 7 cravings 36, 55, 63–4, 115, 135–6, 224, 228–9, 230 DSM-IV (Diagnostic Statistical Manual) 129 females 130 MDMA 80 opiates 110–12 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 179, 182 sex hormones 130 withdrawal symptoms 36, 55, 63–5, 135–6, 138–9, 144 anxiolytic effects CNS depressants 119–30 opiates 112 APA see American Psychiatric Association apolipoprotein E 187, 198–9 apomorphine 161 APP see amyloid precursor protein appetite suppression 50 arachnoid membrane 12–13 ARAS see Ascending Reticular Activating System Aricept 4, 194–5 aromatherapy, cognitive enhancers 212 arousal 14, 45–9, 64–5, 94, 212, 223–6 Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS), concepts 14, 45, 74, 121–2, 127 Ashton, H. 63 aspartate 20–1 association area, concepts 13 asthma 43, 48, 59–60, 100–1 astrocytes 20–1 ATP see adenosine triphosphate Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) 83, 207 atropine 83, 191–2, 207 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 5, 41, 44, 49–50 CNS stimulants 5, 41, 44, 49–50 controversies 5, 41, 44, 49–50 diagnoses trends 5, 49–50 atypical neuroleptics, concepts 167–9 auditory hallucinations 153–70 Australia herbal products 213 lithium 231 tobacco trends 5, 56 autonomic motor efferents, concepts 10–12 autonomic nervous system (ANS) see also parasympathetic ; sympathetic concepts 10–12, 13, 14, 211 physiological effects guide 11 autoreceptors 23 average life expectancies 188, 201 aversion therapy, alcohol 31 axons, concepts 14–20, 78, 157–8, 183 babies 29–30, 47, 55–6, 57–9, 113–14, 159, 184 see also children antiepileptic drugs 184 CNS stimulants 47 cocaine 47 dependence 30, 47, 114 fetal alcohol syndrome 30, 140 opiates 113–14 schizophrenia 159 tobacco 55–6, 57–9 BAC see blood alcohol concentration bad trips 74–5, 82, 224 Baeyer, Adolph von 127 balance 14 barbiturates 4, 36, 43, 119, 121–2, 127–8, 229 alcohol 127 background 119, 121–2, 127–8, 229 suicides 127–8 Barker, R.A. 12 basal ganglia concepts 13–14, 89, 162–3, 166 structure 13–14, 162–3, 166 Baudelaire, Charles Pierre 87 Index 295 BDZ see benzodiazepines The Beatles 73 benzodiazepines (BDZs) 4, 22, 28, 36, 75, 119, 121–2, 125, 229, 231 see also diazepam background 119, 121–2, 125, 127–30, 229, 231 cognitive effects 129–30 memory 129–30 statistics 128–9 beta-hexosaminidase enzyme 136 Betts, Leah 77 binge drinkers 7, 133, 135–6, 227 see also alcohol biochemical predispositions, diathesis stress model 8, 71, 75–6, 98, 154, 224 biochemical tests, alcoholism 136 biosynthesis, neurotransmitters 33 bipolar disorders, concepts 171–3, 182–4 Birks, J. 214 birth defects 29–30, 113–14 Bishop, K.I. 129 blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 120–6 blood–brain barrier, concepts 29–30, 109, 200 Bloom, F.E. 12 brain alcoholism 140–1 Alzheimer’s disease 187–201 cognitive enhancers 5, 16, 62–3, 203–22, 232 colouration 17 concepts 9–11, 12–24, 45, 73, 89–91, 187–201, 203–22, 232 description 12 disproportionate metabolic activity 204 energy needs 204–13, 232 glucose needs 204–11, 215, 232 information storage 12 information-processing issues 12–14, 203–16 metabolic activity 204, 210–11 oxygen needs 204–11, 232 protective structure 12–13, 204 structure 10–11, 12–13, 45, 73, 78, 89–91, 174–5, 190–2, 196–7, 204 subdivisions 12–13 vulnerability 204 brainstem see also medulla oblongata; pons concept 14, 27, 45–6, 48–9, 73–4, 78, 110, 146, 169, 191–2 brief intervention, alcoholism 142 bromides 119 bronchitis, cannabis 98 Brouwers, E.M. 208 Brown, B. 66 bupropion 34 Burroughs, William 114 butyrophenones 165–9 Cabral, G.A. 99 Cade 182 caffeine 4–5, 7, 31, 41–2, 44–5, 51–3, 144, 213, 223–4 anxiety 52–3 background 5, 41–2, 51–3, 144, 213, 223–4 conditioned factors 52 main properties 7, 41, 42, 44–5, 51–3, 223–4 metabolism processes 31 sources 51 statistics 5, 41, 51–3 trends 5, 41, 51–3 withdrawal symptoms 53, 144, 223–4 caffeinism 52–3 calcium ions 15–23, 109–10, 122, 183, 200 cancers administration routes 27–8 alcohol 120 cannabis 100 opiates 112, 146, 225 tobacco 55, 58–60, 69 cannabinoid intake 29, 85–102 cannabis 4–5, 8, 19–20, 23, 36–7, 48, 76, 81, 85–102, 155, 225–7, 256 acute cognitive effects 92–5 administration routes 5, 28, 60, 88, 92, 100–1 alcohol 93, 95–6 anxiety 92–3, 97, 101 background 5, 8, 28, 36, 76, 81, 85–102, 155, 225–7, 256 behavioural issues 89, 91–3, 97–9, 225–7 children 87 chronic cognitive effects 92–3, 95–9, 225 296 Index cognitive effects 81, 86, 92–9, 225, 227 cost–benefit ratio 227 dependence 36, 93–4, 99, 225, 227 depression links 98, 101 dosage issues 96–7, 227–8 driving tests 94–7 dysphoric reactions 93 endogenous compounds 90, 102 fertility effects 98–9 half-life 89–90 health consequences 97–9, 225 historical uses 86–7, 96–7, 99, 227–8 inhalation trends 5, 28, 87–8, 227–8 legal classification 87, 97, 99 liver 94 manual work 96–7 medicinal effects 85–7, 99–102 memory effects 81, 86, 92–5, 225 metabolism processes 88–90, 94 multiple sclerosis 85, 99–100 negative effects 8, 36, 76, 81, 85–102, 155, 225, 227 paranoia 92–3, 96–8, 227–8 peak concentrations 88 pharmacological effects 89–92, 225 physiological effects 97–9, 225, 227 positive effects 85–7, 91–2, 99–102, 225 potency increases 96–7, 227–8 recreational uses 87, 92 religious uses 86–7 schizophrenia 85, 97–8, 155 sensemilla strain 227–8 sources 86 statistics 5, 87–8, 96–7, 106 subjective effects 92–3 synthetic products 101–2 tobacco 98, 225 tolerance 85, 93–4, 225, 227 trends 5, 87, 106, 227 urine tests 90 varieties 86 withdrawal symptoms 93–4, 95, 101, 225 carbamazepine 171, 183–4 carbidopa 33 carbohydrate-deficient form of transferrin (CDT) 136 carbon monoxide (CO) 23, 55, 59–69, 98, 205, 224 carcinogenic chemicals 27–9, 58, 98 cardiotoxicity effects, antidepressants 178 carers Alzheimer’s disease 189, 193 schizophrenia 231 Carlson, N.R. 12 carotenoids 199 carriers, concepts 34 Cartesian mind–body dualism, concepts 36 CAT see computerised axial tomography catabolic enzymes 20, 33–5 catabolism, concepts 11, 18, 20 catalepsy 169 catatonia 154–7 catechol-O-methyltransferase 20–1 catecholamine model, concepts 171 cathinone 51 caudate nucleus 13, 163, 166 CBF see cerebral blood flow CBT see cognitive behavioural therapy CDT see carbohydrate-deficient form of transferrin central nervous system see also brain; CNS ; spinal cord alcoholism 140–1 concepts 9–24, 33, 61–2, 140–1, 157–8, 203–4, 215–16 energy needs 204, 232 structure 9–12, 14, 204, 215–16, 222–3 cerebellum, concepts 10, 14, 89, 183 cerebral blood flow (CBF) 97–8, 141, 158, 209–15 alcoholism 141 cannabis effects 97–8 schizophrenia 158 cerebral cortex alcoholism 141 concepts 9, 10–11, 13–14, 49, 78, 89, 91, 121–2, 157–8, 166, 183, 187–201 schizophrenia 157–9, 166 cerebral trauma 15 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concepts 12–13, 157–8, 163–4, 181 depression 181 schizophrenia 157–8, 163–4 Index 297 cerebrovascular strokes 58, 120, 140, 198 charybdotoxin 17 ChEI see cholinesterase inhibitors chemical families, neurotransmitters 19–20 chemoreceptors, concepts 10 chewing gum 212 chewing methods, administration routes 27–8, 42, 44–5, 50–1, 58 children 5, 29–30, 41, 47, 113–14, 224, 228, 230 see also babies alcohol 30, 133–4, 137–8, 140, 144, 228, 230 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 5, 41, 44, 49–50 cannabis 87 conduct disorders 137–8, 145 depressed parents 114 heroin 106–7, 113–14 physical exercise 49–50 sudden infant death syndrome 47, 59–60 tobacco 55–6, 57–9, 64–5, 67–9, 144, 224, 230 China cannabis 86 herbal products 214 historical background 4, 43, 51, 86, 104–5, 108 opiates 104–5, 108 tobacco trends 56 chippers, cigarettes 66 chloral hydrate 30–1 chlorazepate 128 chloride ions 15–23, 121–4, 137 chlorpromazine 4–5, 14, 34, 75, 153, 160–1, 164–9, 230–1 historical background 5, 153, 160–1, 164–6, 230–1 schizophrenia 5, 153, 160–1, 164–9, 230–1 chocolate 51–2 see also caffeine cholecystokinin 164 choline 20, 34–5, 191–2 cholinergic systems 21–2, 83, 178, 187, 190–2, 193–6, 206–7, 216, 232 cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI) 187, 193–6, 201 chromosomes, concepts 197–8 chronic cognitive effects, cannabis 92–3, 95–9, 225 cigar smokers 58 cigarettes 4–8, 36, 55–70, 223–4, 229–30, 256 see also nicotine; tobacco advertising 66–7 amputations 57–9 background 4–5, 55–70, 223–4, 229–30 behavioural issues 60–1, 224 cancers 55, 58–60, 69 children 55–6, 57–9, 64–5, 67–9, 144, 224, 230 circulatory problems 55, 57–60, 224 deaths 8, 36, 55, 57–60, 224 fashion 66–7 first-time usage 6–7, 67 health consequences 7–8, 36, 46–8, 55–70, 223–4 heavy/light use contrasts 66–7 initiation 6–7, 67 inter-cigarette intervals 61 low-tar cigarettes 58–9 passive smoking 59–60 peer pressures 67 relapse problems 68–9 sexual performance 57 smoke inhalation 55–70, 223–4 statistics 4–5, 8, 55–70 tar 55, 57–60, 98, 224–5 treatments 55, 59, 67–9, 115, 148 trends 5, 8, 55–70, 223–4 circulatory problems, cigarettes 55, 57–60, 224 cirrhosis, liver 120, 139–40 citalopram 177, 180 class 1 receptors, concepts 21–3, 222–3 class 2 receptors, concepts 22–3, 222–3 Clifford, P. 212–13 clinical uses see also medicinal drugs 153, 230–1 Clinton, Bill 5, 87, 227 clomipramine 177–80 clopenthixol 165–9 clorgyline 179 clozapine 4, 32, 153, 165–9 298 Index clubbing activities cocaine 42 MDMA 37, 43, 71, 76–8 CNS (central nervous system) depressants 4–7, 12, 14, 119–30, 133–49, 225–7 see also alcohol; barbiturates; benzodiazepines anxiolytic effects 119–30 brainstem death 14 list 4 main properties 4, 5–8, 119–30, 133–49, 225–6 negative effects 7–8, 14, 30, 95, 119–21, 133–49, 225–32 overdoses 14 positive effects 7, 119–30, 134, 225–7 reaction times 12, 212–13 statistics 5 trends 5, 120–1, 134–5, 138–9, 225–6, 227 CNS (central nervous system) stimulants 4–6, 7, 12, 41–53, 147, 213, 223–6 see also amphetamines; caffeine; cocaine Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 5, 41, 44, 49–50 costs 47–8 hyperactive children 5 list 4 main properties 4, 6, 7, 41–53, 223–6 negative effects 7–8, 223–32 positive effects 7, 223–6 reaction times 12, 212–13 statistics 5 trends 5, 41, 43, 49–50, 51–3, 106, 223–6 CNS see central nervous system CO see carbon monoxide co-transmitters 20 coca leaves 4, 6, 27, 42, 44 Coca-Cola 42 cocaine 4, 6, 7–8, 25, 41–50, 69, 112, 143–7, 155, 223–4, 226, 229 administration routes 27–8, 41, 44–5, 47 amphetamines 6, 45, 46 babies 47 background 5, 41–2, 44–50, 143–7, 155, 223–4, 226, 229 clinical uses 48–50 costs 47–8 crack cocaine 25, 41, 44–7, 106–7, 144, 146 cross-tolerance 35–6, 46 deaths 47 dependence 26, 30, 41–2, 44–5, 46–8, 69, 143–7, 223–4, 226 health consequences 46–8, 223–4 main properties 4, 6, 7–8, 41–2, 44–50, 223–4, 226 negative effects 7, 30, 41–2, 44–8, 147, 155, 223–4, 226, 229 novice users 45–6 positive effects 7, 41, 44–5, 48–50, 223–4, 226, 229 psychological effects 45–6, 147, 155, 223–4, 226 relapse problems 48 statistics 5, 42, 106 tolerance 35–6, 46–8, 223–4, 226 treatments 48 trends 5, 42, 106, 223–4 uses 4, 6, 7–8, 41–2, 44–50 violence 45–6 withdrawal symptoms 143, 146 cod liver oil 213, 232 codeine 4, 103–4, 105, 107–8, 112 coffee 7, 51–3 see also caffeine cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) 141, 148, 181, 184, 231–2 alcoholism 141, 148 depression 181 mania 184 cognitive decline 4, 5, 15, 95–6, 187–201, 214 see also dementia alcoholism 140–1 Alzheimer’s disease 187–201 drug uses 4, 5, 95–6, 187–201, 214 cognitive effects alcohol 95, 121–7, 134–42, 225–7 antidepressants 178 benzodiazepines 129–30 cannabis 81, 86, 92–9, 225, 227 depression 173, 181 opiates 111–15, 225 cognitive enhancers 5, 16, 62–3, 203–22, 232 see also brain aromatherapy 212 background 5, 203–22, 232 Index 299 chewing gum 212 cod liver oil 213, 232 Ginkgo biloba 203, 213–15 ginseng 203, 215–16 glucose 204–11, 215, 232 herbal extracts 203, 213–16, 232 lemon balm 203, 216 mental efforts 211 metabolic activity 204, 210–11 nootropics 207–10, 232 novel approaches 207, 211–16 omega-3 213, 232 oxygen 204–11, 232 physical exercise 203, 212–13, 232 sage 203, 216, 232 cognitive information, interneurons 10–11 Colombia 42, 107 Comitas, L. 96 computerised axial tomography (CAT) 97–8, 157–8 concentration gradients, concepts 15–16 conditioned factors, caffeine 52 conduct disorders 137–8, 145 conscious information processing, interneurons 10–11 constipation antidepressants 178 opiates 111–12, 114 contradictory effects, nicotine 62 Cooper, J.R. 162 coping skills, treatments 149 coronary heart disease, alcohol 120, 134, 140 corpus callosum, concepts 13 corpus striatum 13, 20, 158 cortical atrophy, Alzheimer’s disease 187–201 cortisol levels 144, 175 cost–benefit ratios concepts 8, 221, 222–7 dosage issues 228 cotinine 68 counselling benefits, treatments 141–2, 147–8 couples therapy, alcoholism 142 crack cocaine 25, 41, 44–7, 106–7, 144, 146 cravings concepts 228–9, 230 ‘‘urge-surfing’’ 230 withdrawal symptoms 36, 55, 63–4, 115, 135–6, 224, 228–9, 230 Crews, W.D. 214 crime alcohol 119, 125, 138 CNS depressants 119 concepts 229 crack cocaine 146 heroin 107, 113–14, 146 legal classifications 87, 97, 99, 229 theories 146–7 Crimpe, Samuel 114 cross-tolerance 35–6, 46 Crow, T.J. 155–7 CSF see cerebrospinal fluid curative effects see medicinal effects Curran, H.V. 78, 129 CYP2D6 31, 180 cytochrome P-450 31, 35 D 2 -like receptors 34, 136, 145, 161–3, 165–9 D-amphetamine 21, 33 D-cycloserine 169 D-glucose 16 D-serine 169 Dale’s law 20 Darwin, Charles 214 date rape 119 DBZ see dibenzodiazepine De Quincey, Thomas 105 deadly nightshade 83, 207 deaths alcohol 36, 125–6, 137–40, 227 amphetamines 47 antidepressants 180 cocaine 47 depression 173, 174, 178–80 heroin 107–9, 113, 115–16, 149 MDMA 77–8 schizophrenia 157 tobacco 8, 36, 55, 57–60, 224 decanoates 30 decision making, reaction times 12–13, 212–13 Delay, J. 164 delirium tremens 135, 144 delusions 4, 7, 14, 34, 83, 98, 139, 153–70 alcohol 139 300 Index cognitive enhancers (cont.) amphetamines 160–1 drug uses 4, 7, 14, 34, 83, 98, 139, 153–70 schizophrenia 153–70 dementia 4–5, 15, 187–201, 205, 208 see also Alzheimer’s disease; cognitive decline drug uses 4–5, 187–201 Mini-Mental State Examination 195 statistics 187–9 types 187–8 dementia praecox, concepts 154 dendrites, concepts 14–17, 23, 157–8, 169 dendrotoxin 17 denial issues, addictions 147 Deniker, P. 164 dentistry 17, 129 deoxyhaemoglobin 158 dependence 3, 6–8, 25, 30, 31, 34–8, 41–53, 55–69, 92–3, 99, 119–30, 133–49, 179, 221–6, 228–9 see also individual drugs addiction contrasts 146, 223 addictive personalities 145, 228 antidepressants 179 babies 30, 47, 114 causes 144–5, 228–9 concepts 3, 7–8, 34–8, 41, 133–49, 179, 221, 223–6, 228–9 denial issues 147 disease model 143, 230 early theories 143 general principles 143–9 health issues 229–30 legal classifications 229 mechanism 7, 142–9 neuronal adaptation 143 personality changes 146–7 positive reinforcement model 143, 145–6 reward pathways 144–6, 228 risk factors 144–5 self-perpetuating vicious circles 147 social costs 134, 138–40, 146–7, 225–30 social factors 144–5, 146–7 treatments 48, 55, 59, 67–9, 108, 115, 133, 141–2, 146, 147–9, 210, 221–2, 229–32 types 36, 55, 143–4 ‘‘urge-surfing’’ 230 depolarisation see also action potential concepts 16–17, 22, 183 depot injections, muscles 25, 27, 30, 153, 166–7 depression 4–5, 31, 33, 65, 78, 82, 98, 101, 111, 114, 144, 146–7, 171–84, 209, 231, 257 see also antidepressants alcohol 120–1, 138–9 alternative approaches 181 background 171–84, 209, 231, 257 cannabis 98, 101, 225 causes 171–5 children 114 cognitive behavioural therapy 181 complementary approaches 181 concepts 171–84 deaths 173, 174, 178–80 drug uses 4–5, 7, 31, 33, 65, 78, 82, 98, 101, 114, 146–7, 171–84, 224 DSM-IV (Diagnostic Statistical Manual) 172–3 elderly people 181 electroconvulsive therapy 176 future prospects 181–4 genetic predispositions 173–4 herbal remedies 179, 181 historical background 5, 48–9, 171, 174–8, 179–80, 231 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal axis 175, 215 monoamine oxidase inhibitors 171, 174–9 monoamine theories 174–5 psychological therapies 181–2 seasonal affective disorder 172, 181 serotonin 171–84 statistics 173–4, 180–1 suicides 173, 174, 177 supersensitive receptors 175 symptoms 171–4 ‘‘designer’’ drugs 35 desipramine 30–1, 177–8 detoxification treatments 34, 134, 148, 210 DeVreese, L.P. 208 dexamethasone suppression test (DST) 175 Deyo, R.A. 210 diabetes mellitus 27, 57–9, 204, 215 Index 301 [...]... 32, 108 ethnic minorities 106 first-time usage 111 half-life 108 –9 health consequences 111–16 historical background 103 –6, 107 –8 main properties 4, 6, 33–4, 103 –17 metabolism processes 107 –9 morphine contrasts 107 –8, 228 ‘‘needle freaks’’ 37–8, 228 negative effects 7–8, 34, 36, 103 –17, 225, 228 overdoses 105 –6, 115–16, 149 physiological effects 111–15 positive effects 103 –5, 111–12 production processes 104 ... 60, 103 –5, 106 –7, 108 –13, 116, 228 analgesic effects 103 –17, 143, 225 anxiety 110 12 babies 113–14 background 5, 7–8, 34, 36–8, 103 –17, 143–6, 225, 256 chemical structures 107 –8 children 106 –7, 113–14 chronic usage 112–13 cognitive effects 111–15, 225 collapsed veins 113 constipation 111–12, 114 crime 107 , 113–14, 146 cross-tolerance 36 deaths 107 –9, 113, 115–16, 149, 225 dependence 7–8, 34, 36, 104 –17,... concepts 32 plasma half-lives 32, 88–90, 108 –9, 123, 180 emotions 10 11, 13, 52–3, 156–7, 184 enantiomers 21 endocrine glands 11, 13 endogenous compounds cannabis 90, 102 opiates 109 10, 114–15 endoplasmic reticulum, concepts 14–15 endorphins 103 –4, 109 10, 225 endozepines 130 enemas, alcohol 120 energy needs, brain 204–13, 232 enkephalins 109 10 environmental factors diathesis stress model 8, 75–6, 154,... 33–4, 36–8, 69, 103 –17, 145–6, 225, 228, 256 see also opiates administration routes 28–9, 37–8, 106 –7, 108 –13, 116, 228 anxiety 110 12 babies 113–14 background 5, 7–8, 34, 36–8, 103 –17, 145–6, 225, 228 children 106 –7, 113–14 cognitive effects 111–15 collapsed veins 113 constipation 111–12, 114 crack cocaine 106 –7 crime 107 , 113–14, 146 deaths 107 –9, 113, 115–16, 149 dependence 7–8, 34, 36, 103 –17, 145–6... 228 endogenous compounds 109 10, 114–15 first-time usage 111 half-lives 108 –9 health consequences 111–16 historical background 3–4, 103 –8 list 4 main properties 4, 6, 103 –17 medicinal effects 103 –5, 111–12, 225 metabolism processes 107 –9 ‘‘needle freaks’’ 37–8, 228 negative effects 7–8, 34, 36, 103 –17, 225 overdoses 105 –6, 115–16, 149 physiological effects 111–15 positive effects 103 –5, 111–12, 225 psychological... production processes 104 psychological effects 37–8, 111, 225, 228 purity trends 106 –7 recreational uses 106 –17 relapse problems 148–9 sexual performance 113 social decline 112–14 sources 103 –7 statistics 5, 106 –7, 115–16, 148–9 subjective effects 110 11 tolerance 108 –11, 114–16 toxins 115–16 treatments 69, 108 , 115, 147–8, 210 trends 5, 106 –8 withdrawal symptoms 114–15, 146 heteroreceptors, concepts 23 hindbrain,... uses 105 –17 relapse problems 148–9 sexual performance 113 social decline 112–14 sources 103 –7 statistics 5, 106 –7, 115–16, 148–9 subjective effects 110 11 synthetic products 108 , 115–16 tolerance 36, 108 –11, 114–16, 143–4, 225 toxins 115–16 311 312 Index opiates (cont.) treatments 69, 108 , 115, 147–8, 210 withdrawal symptoms 114–15, 144, 146, 225 opioid receptors, alcoholism 137 opium 3–4, 28–9, 103 –6,... sources 255–7 interneurons, concepts 9, 10 11, 109 10 intramuscular administration (IM) 27, 112, 167 intraocular pressure (IOP) 100 intraperitoneal administration (IP) 27 intrathecal administration (IT) 27 intravenous administration (IV) 27–8, 106 –13, 116, 120, 149, 223–4, 228 introverts 49–50 IOC see International Olympics Committee ions, concepts 15–23, 33, 61–2, 109 10, 121–4, 127–8, 137, 182–3, 200,... psychoactive drugs (cont.) Internet information sources 255–7 legal classifications 87, 97, 99, 229 list 4, 71, 82, 165–9, 176–7, 210, 222 negative effects 3, 7–8, 15, 29–30, 36, 41–2, 44–8, 55–70, 71–6, 77–82, 85 102 , 103 –17, 119–21, 133–49, 223–32 paraphernalia 37–8, 228 placebo responses 25, 36–8, 43, 62–3, 80–1, 99, 164, 176, 208, 224–5 positive effects 3, 7–8, 41, 44–5, 48–50, 76–7, 82, 85–7, 91–2, 99 102 , 103 –5,... tranylcypromine 179–80 Travill, R.A 78 treatments 48, 55, 59, 67–9, 108 , 115, 133, 141–2, 146, 147–9, 199–201, 210, 221–2, 229–32 see also individual drugs cognitive behavioural therapy 141, 148, 181, 184, 231–2 coping skills 149 counselling benefits 141–2, 147–8 detoxification 34, 134, 148, 210 lapse problems 148–9, 230 medications 27, 68, 141–2, 148, 210, 231–2 multi-component approaches 141–2, 147–8, 199–201, . 88–90, 108 concepts 32 plasma half-lives 32, 88–90, 108 –9, 123, 180 emotions 10 11, 13, 52–3, 156–7, 184 enantiomers 21 endocrine glands 11, 13 endogenous compounds cannabis 90, 102 opiates 109 10, . processes 32, 108 ethnic minorities 106 first-time usage 111 half-life 108 –9 health consequences 111–16 historical background 103 –6, 107 –8 main properties 4, 6, 33–4, 103 –17 metabolism processes 107 –9 morphine. concepts 11 analgesic effects 4, 6, 33–4, 85, 90, 92–3, 100 , 103 –17, 143, 146 anandamide 19–20, 90 cannabis 90, 100 opiates 103 –17, 143, 225 anandamide 90 ‘‘angel dust’’ see phencyclidine anhedonia