Environmental Modelling with GIs and Remote Sensing Edited by Andrew Skidmore Taylor & Francis * LONDON AND NEWYORK 0 Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore F'irst published 2002 by Taylor & Francis 11 New Fctter Lanc, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published In the USA and Canada by Routledgc 29 West 35th Street, NewYork, NY 10001 Reprinted 2003 (twlcc) Taylor & Fruncis is un imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group 0 2002 Andrew Skidmore This book has becn produced from camera ready copy supplicd by thc editor All rights rescrvcd. No part of this book may bc rcprintcd or reproduccd or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storagc or rctrieval systcm, without permission in writing fiom the publishers. Every effort has been made to ensure that thc advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publishcr nor thc authors can accept any lcgal rcsponsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In thc case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use oftechnical equipment mentioned within this book, you arc strongly adviscd to consult the manufacturer's guidelines. British Library Catalogzllng in Publication Llatu A catalogue record for this book is availablc from the British Library Librury of Congress Cataloguing in Pnblicution Datu A catalogue record has been requcsted Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore Contents Preface List ofJigures List of tables and boxes 1. Introduction 1.1 1 The challenge 1.2 Motivation to write this book 1.3 What is environmental modelling and how can GIs and remote sensing help in environmental modelling 1.4 Contents of the book 1.5 Rcfcrcnces 2. Taxonomy of environmental models in the spatial sciences 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Taxonomy of models 2.3 Models of logic 2.3.1 Deductive models 2.3.2 Inductive models 2.3.3 Discussion 2.4 Deterministic models 2.4.1 Empirical models 2.4.2 Knowledge driven models 2.4.3 Process driven models 2.5 Stochastic models 2.6 Conclusion 2.7 References 3. New environmental remote sensing systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 High spatial resolution sensors 3.2.1 Historical overview 3.2.2 Overview sensors 3.2.3 IRS-1C and IRS-1D x1 . . . Xlll xvii Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore vi Contents 3.2.4 KVR-1000 3.2.5 OrbView-3 3.2.6 Ikonos 3.2.7 QuickBird 3.2.8 Eros 3.2.9 Applications and perspectives 3.3 High spectral resolution satellites 3.3.1 Historical overview 3.3.2 Overview hyperspectral imaging sensors 3.3.3 Applications and perspectives 3.4 High temporal resolution satellites 3.4.1 Low spatial resolution satellite system with high revisiting time 3.4.2 Medium spatial resolution satellite systems with high revisiting time 3.5 Radar 3.5.1 Historical overview 3.5.2 Overview of sensors 3.5.3 Applications and perspectives 3.6 Other systems 3.6.1 Altimetry 3.6.2 Scatterometers/Spectrometers 3.6.3 Lidar 3.7 Internet sources 3.7.1 High spatial resolution satellite systems 3.7.2 High spectral resolution satellite systems 3.7.3 High temporal resolution satellite systems 3.7.4 RADAR satellite systems 3.7.5 General sources of information 3.8 References 4. Geographic data for environmental modelling and assessment 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Land-atmosphere interaction modelling 4.3 Ecosystems process modelling 4.4 Hydrologic modelling 4.5 Dynamic biosphere modelling 4.6 Data access 4.7 Global databases 4.7.1 Multiple-theme global databases 4.7.2 Hcritagc global land cover databases 4.7.3 Global land cover from satellite data 4.7.4 Topographic data 4.7.5 Soils data 4.7.6 Global population Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore Contents vii 4.7.7 Satellite data 4.8 Sub-global scale databases 4.8.1 Regional land cover mapping 4.8.2 Topographic databases 4.8.3 Administrative and census data 4.8.4 Data clearinghouses 4.9 The role of the end-user in the USGS global land cover characterization project 4.10 Summary 4.1 1 References 5. The biosphere: a global perspective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Historic overview 5.3 Landsat based regional studies 5.3.1 The Large Area Crop Inventory Program 5.3.2 Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation 5.4 AVHRR based regional and global studies 5.4.1 Sources of interference 5.4.2 Desert margin studies 5.4.3 Monitoring Desert Locust habitats 5.4.4 Land cover classificatiol~ 5.4.5 ENS0 5.5 Wild fire detection 5.6 Discussion 5.7 References 6. Vegetation mapping and monitoring 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Vegetation mapping 6.2.1 Historical overview 6.2.2 Multispectral data and image classification 6.2.3 Vegetation mapping, ancillary data and GIs 6.2.4 Use of spatial and temporal patterns 6.2.5 New kinds of imagery 6.2.6 Accuracy assessment 6.3 Monitoring vegetation change 6.3.1 Monitoring vegetation condition and health 6.3.2 Vegetation conversion and change 6.4 Concluding comments 6.5 References 7. Application of remote sensing and geographic information systems in wildlife mapping and modelling 121 7.1 Introduction 121 Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore viii Contents 7.2 Wildlife conservation and reserve management 122 7.3 Mapping wildlife distribution 123 7.4 Mapping wildlife resource requirements 125 7.5 Mapping and modelling habitat suitability for wildlife 126 7.5.1 Habitats and habitat maps 126 7.5.2 Mapping suitability for wildlife 127 7.5.3 Accuracy of suitability maps 128 7.5.4 Factors influencing wildlife distribution 130 7.6 Modelling species-environment relationships 13 1 7.6.1 Static versus dynamic models 133 7.6.2 Transferability of species - environment models 135 7.7 Innovative mapping of wildlife and its physical environment 135 7.8 Conclusions 136 7.9 References 137 8. Biodiversity mapping and modelling 8.1 Context 8.2 Definitions 8.3 Key issues 8.4 Mobilizing the data 8.4.1 Attribute selection 8.4.2 Sampling design 8.4.3 Data capture 8.4.4 Standards and quality assurance 8.4.5 Data custodianship and access 8.4.6 Data mining and harmonization 8.5 Tools and techniques 8.5.1 Database management 8.5.2 Geographic information systems 8.5.3 Distribution mapping tools 8.5.4 Environmental domain analysis 8.5.5 Environmental assessment and decision support 8.6 Display and communication 8.7 Futurc developments 8.8 References and information resources 8.9 Tools and technologies 9. Approaches to spatially distributed hydrological modelling in a GIS environment 166 9.1 Basic hydrological processes and modelling approaches 166 9.1 .I Thc hydrological cycle 167 9.1.2 Modelling approaches 172 9.2 Data for spatially distributed hydrological modelling 173 9.2.1 Vegetation 174 9.2.2 Modelling vegetation growth 178 Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore Contents ix 9.2.3 Topography 179 9.2.4 Soil 18 1 9.2.5 Climate 182 9.3 The land surface - atmosphere interface 184 9.3.1 Estimation of potential evaporation 184 9.3.2 Estimation of actual evaporation and evapotranspiration 187 9.4 The distribution of surface flow in digital elevation models 189 9.4.1 Estimation of topographic form for 'undisturbed' surface facets 192 9.5 Estimation of subsurface flow 193 9.5.1 Estimation of subsurface unsaturated flow 194 9.5.2 Estimation of subsurface saturated flow 195 9.6 Summary 195 9.7 References 196 10. Remote sensing and geographic information systems for natural disaster management 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Disaster management 10.3 Remote sensing and GIs: tools in disaster management 10.3.1 Introduction 10.3.2 Application levels at different scales 10.4 Examples of the use of GIs and remote sensing in hazard assessment 10.4.1 Floods 10.4.2 Earthquakes 10.4.3 Volcanic eruptions 10.4.4 Landslides 10.4.5 Fires 10.4.6 Cyclones 10.4.7 Environmental hazards 10.5 Conclusions 10.6 References 11. Land use planning and environmental impact assessment using geographic information systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 GIs in land use planning activities 11.3 Sources and types of spatial data sets 1 1.3.1 Land topography 11.3.2 Soils 1 1.3.3 Land uselcover 11.4 Land evaluation methods 1 1.4.1 Conventional approaches Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore x Contents 1 1.4.2 Quantitative approaches 11.4.3 Site suitability analysis 11.4.4 Standard land evaluation systems 1 1.5 Land use planning activities at regional and global scales 11.6 Availability and distribution of spatial data sets 11.7 Reliability of GIs-based land use planning results 1 1.8 Summary and conclusions 1 1.9 References Environmental modelling: issues and discussion 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Geo-information related questions in environmental management 12.3 Problems raised by the participants 12.3.1 Data problems 12.3.2 Modelling problems 12.3.3 GIs and remote sensing technology problems 12.3.4 Expertise problems 12.4 Proposed solutions for problems by participants 12.4.1 Data solutions 12.4.2 Modelling solutions 12.4.3 GIs and RS technology solutions 12.4.4 Expertise solutions 12.4.5 General solutions 12.5 Reflection 12.6 References Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore Preface This book is the summary of lectures presented at a short course entitled "Environmental Modelling and GIs" at the International Institute for Aerospace Survey (ITC), The Netherlands. Previous books on environmental modelling and GIS are detailed in Chapter 1. This book aims to bring the literature up to date, as well as provide new perspectives on developments in environmental modelling from a GIS viewpoint. Environmental modelling remains a daunting task - decision makers, politicians and the general public demand faster and more detailed analyses of environ- mental problems and processes, and clamour for scientists to provide solutions to these problems. For GIS users and modellers, the problems are multi-faceted, ranging from access to data, data quality, developing and applying models, as well as institutional and staffing issues. These topics are covcred within the book. But the main emphasis of the book is on environmental models; a good overview of currently available data, models and approaches is provided. There is always difficulty in developing a cohcrent book from submitted chapters. We have tried to ensure coherence through authors refereeing each other's chapters, by cross-references, by indexing, and finally by editorial input. Ultimately, it was not possible to rewrite every chapter into a similar style - it would destroy the unique contribution of authors of each chapter. And the editor would overstep the bounds of editorship and drift into authorship. It is assumed that the reader has basic knowledge about CIS and remote sensing, though most chapters are accessible to beginners. An introductory text for CIS is Burrough and McDonnell (1 993) and for remote sensing Avery and Berlin (1992). The editor and authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following: Daniela Semeraro who helped organize the short course, and provided secretarial services during thc production of the book. Gulsaran Inan who assisted in completing the book. The participants of the course who gave feedback and comments ITC management (Professor Karl Harmsen and Professor Martien Molenaar) for facilitating the short course and providing staff time to produce the book. Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore xii Preface The assistance of ITC staff in running the short course. The host organizations (see affiliations) of the authors who provided staff with the time to write the chapters. The Taylor and Francis staff (especially Tony Moore and Sarah Kramer) who supported the editor and authors during the production of the book. REFERENCES CITED Avery, T. E. and Berlin G. L. (1992). Fundamentals ofRemote Sensing and Airphoto Interpretation. New York, Macmillan Publishing Company. Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R.A. (1993). Principles ofGeographica1 Information Systems. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Andrew K. Skidmore ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands November 200 1 Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore [...]... Burrough 19 86; Burrough and McDonnell 19 93), management of GIs (e.g Aronoff 19 89; Huxhold and Levinsohn 19 95), the application of G I s (e.g Heit and Shortreid, 19 91) , advanced data structures (e.g Laurini and Thompson 19 92; Van Oosterom 19 93) and an earlier book on environmental modelling with G I s (Goodchild et al 19 93) 1. 3 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND HOW CAN GIs AND REMOTE SENSING HELP IN ENVIRONMENTAL. .. Koohafkan and Antoine 19 97) Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore 24 1 List of Tables and Boxes Table 1 1 Box 1. 1 Participants and lecturers in the short course Typical questions addressed by a G I s (after Burrough 19 86 and Gamer 19 93) Table 1. 2 Main problems in implementing GIs, as cited from 19 86 to 20 01 Table 2 .1 A taxonomy of models used in environmental science and CIS Table 3 .1 Typical high-resolution... of lahar Figure 11 .1 Relationships among different tasks of the F A 0 land use planning process Figure 1 1.2 The USDA-NRCS farm planning process (after Drungill et al 19 95) Figure 11 .3 Relationships between GIs and remote sensing Figure 11 .4 AEGIS decision support system (adapted from IBSNAT 19 92) Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore xvi Figures Figure 1 1.5 Methodology of the F A 0 Agro-Ecological Zoning... presently, and are the focus in this book Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore Environmental Modelling with CIS and Remote Sensing Table 1. 2: Main problems in implementing GIs, as cited from 19 86 to 20 01 Year 19 86 Author Burrough 19 89 Aronoff 19 91 Atenucci et al 19 93 19 95 Van Oosterom Huxhold Levinsohn Bregt er al 200 1 and Problems in implementing GIS Technical requirements (hardware, software and data structures);... Archer, H (19 91) Geographic information systems a guide to the technology New York, Chapman and Hall Barbier, E.B., 19 87, The concept of sustainable development Environmental Conservation, 14 : 10 1- 1 10 Bregt, A., Skidmore, A.K and G Nieuwenhuis, 20 01, Environmental Modelling: Issues and Discussion Chapter 12 (this volume) Burrough, P.A., 19 86, Principles of Geographic lnformation Systems for Land Resources... attributes and standards for species occurrence records Box 8 .1 Museum collections databases Box 8.2 Biodiversity standards and protocols Box 8.3 BIOCLIM Box 8.4 Interim Biogeographic Regionalization of Australia Box 8.5 Gap Analysis Program, USA Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore xviii Tables and Boxes Table 9 .1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 10 .1 Table 10 .2 Table 10 .3 Table 11 .1 Table 12 .1 Table 12 .2 Table 12 .3... distribution and average density (N.km2) of wildebeest in the Masai Mara ecosystem, Narok District, Kenya for the period 19 7 9 -1 982, 19 8 3 -1 990 and 19 9 1- 1 996 The density was calculated on 5 by 5 km sub-unit basis Scheme for CIS based suitability mapping Scheme displaying the impact on the distribution of an animal species of three broad categories of environmental factors People and the physical-chemical... L.O and S.A Kroonenberg, 19 92, Time and spatial scales in ecological sustainability, pp 15 5- 16 8 Garner, B., 19 93, lntroduction to CIS UNSW Lecture notes, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2000 M Goodchild, B P a L S., Ed (19 93) Environmental modeling with GIs Oxford, Oxford University Press Goodland, R and G Ledec, 19 87, Neoclassical economics and principles of sustainable development Ecological Modelling, ... details of a metre Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore 5 Introduction Box 1. 1: Typical questions addressed by a GIS (after Burrough 19 86 and Garner 19 93) Location {What is at ?} - What house number is at lot X? - What is the crop type at point Y? Condition {Where is it .?} - Where is all the land zoned for firework factories within 200 m of a suburb? - Where is the forest within 10 0 km of a timber mill? Distribution... provided, and applied through, a geographic information system (GIs) and remote sensing Better spatial information and maps leads to improved planning and decision making at all levels and scales, and hopefully generates harmony between production and conservation across a landscape This book is focused on information, and specifically on how spatial information may be used for environmental modelling and . Figure 10 .1 Figure 10 .2 Figure 10 .3 Figure 10 .4 Figure 10 .5 Figure 1 1 .1 Figure 1 1.2 Figure 1 1 .3 Figure 1 1.4 Overland and subsurface flow (from Andersson and Nilsson 19 98). The. Sources and types of spatial data sets 1 1.3 .1 Land topography 11 .3.2 Soils 1 1. 3.3 Land uselcover 11 .4 Land evaluation methods 1 1. 4 .1 Conventional approaches Copyright 2002 Andrew Skidmore x. of GIs and remote sensing in hazard assessment 10 .4 .1 Floods 10 .4.2 Earthquakes 10 .4.3 Volcanic eruptions 10 .4.4 Landslides 10 .4.5 Fires 10 .4.6 Cyclones 10 .4.7 Environmental hazards 10 .5