540 Plastics Engineered Product Design Temperature controller, heating overshoot circuit Used in temperature controllers to inhibit temperature overshooting on warm-up. Temperature detector, resistance RTD contains a temperature sensor made from a material such as high purity platinum wire; resistance of the wire changes rapidly with temperatures. These sensors are about 60 times more sensitive than thermocouples. Temperature measurement Temperatures can be measured with thermocouple (T/C) or resistance temperature detector (RTD). T/Cs tend to have shorter response time, while RTDs have less drift and are easier to calibrate. Traditionally, PID controls have been used for heating and on-off control for cooling. From a temperature control point the more recent use is the fuzzy logic control (FLC). One of FLCs major advantage is the lack of overshoot on startup, resulting in achieving the setpoint more rapidly. Another advantage is in its multi-variable control where more than one measured input variable can effect the desired output result. This is an important and unique feature. With PID one measured variable affects a single output variable. Two or more PIDs may be used in a cascade fashion but with more variables they are not practical to use. Temperature proportional-integral derivative Pinpoint temperature accuracy is essential to be successful in many fabricating processes. In order to achieve it, microprocessor-based temperature controllers can use a proportional-integrated-derivative (1’ID) control algorithm acknowledged to be accurate. The unit will instantly identify varying thermal behavior and adjust its PID values accordingly. Tex A unit for expressing linear density that is equal to the mass of weight in grams of 1,000 m of fiber, filament, yarn, or other textile strand. Thermodynamic It is the scientific principle that deals with the inter- conversion of heat and other forms of energy. Thermodynamics (therm0 = heat and dynamic = changes) is the study of these energy transfers. The law of conservation of energy is called the first law of thermodynamics. Thixotropic A characteristic of material undergoing flow deformation where viscosity increases drastically when the force inducing the flow is removed. In respect to materials, gel-like at rest but fluid or liquefied when agitated (such as during molding). Having high static shear strength and low dynamic shear strength at the same time. Losing viscosity under stress. It describes a filled plastic (like BMC) that has little or no movement when applied to a vertical plane. Powdered silica and other fillers are used as thickening agents. Tolerance, full indicator movement FIM is a term used to identify tolerance with respect to concentricity. Terms used in the past were full indicator reading (FIR) and total indicator reading (TIR). Tool When processing plastics some type of tooling is required. Tools include molds, dies, mandrels, jigs, fixtures, punch dies, perforated forms, etc. These tools fabricate or shape products. They fit into the overall flow chart in fabricating plastic products. The terms for tools are virtually synonymous in the sense that they have some type of female and/or negative cavity into or through which a molten plastic moves usually under heat and pressure or they are used in secondary operations such as cutting dies, stamping sheet dies, etc. Materials of construction can be related to the two most commonly used standards that are the American Iron and Steel Institute (AM) and the German Werkstoff material numbers and their mean (average) chemical compositions. Note that chemical compositions will always differ from data in one book to another book and from one manufacturer's tool stock list to another. As an example it will be very unlikely that the P20 steel being used will exactly match the chemical composition reported in different tables. However they will be close. In addition to steels materials of construction include all types such as aluminum, copper, and beryllium-copper. Examples of other different types include wood and plastic for thermoforms and reinforced plastics (RPs). RP tools also include vacuum and pressure flexible bags. Operations of tools vary from fabricating solid to foamed products such as using a steam chest for producing expandable polystyrene foams. Mold and die tools are used in processing many different plastics with many of them having common assembly and operating parts (preengineered since the 1940s) with the target to have the tool's opening or cavity designed to form desired final shapes and sizes. They can comprise of many moving parts requiring high quality metals and precision machining. As an example with certain processes to capitalize on advantages, molds may incorporate many cavities, adding hrther to its complexity. Tools of all types can represent upward to one-third of the companies manufacturing investment. Metals, specifically steels, are the most common materials of construction for the rigid parts of tools. Some mold and die tools cost more than the primary processing machinery with the usual approaching half the cost of the primary machine. About 5 to 15% of tool cost are for the material used in its manufacture, design about 5 to lo%, tool building hours about 50 to 70%, and profit at about 5 to 15%. The proper choice of materials of construction for their openings or cavities is paramount to quality, performance, and longevity (number or length of products to be processed) of tools. Desirable properties are good machinability of component metal parts, material that will accept the desired finish (polished, etc.), ability with most molds or dies to transfer heat rapidly and evenly, capability of sustained production without constant maintenance, etc. As the technology of tool enhancements continues to evolve, tool manufacturers have increasingly turned to them in the hope of gaining performance and cost advantages. There are now a wide variety of enhancement methods and suppliers, each making its own claims on the benefits of its products. With so many suppliers offering so many products, the decision on which technology to try can be time consuming. There are toolmakers that do not have the 542 Plastics Engineered Product Design resources to devote to a detailed study of all of these options. In many cases they treat tools with methods that have worked for them in the past, even though the current application may have different demands and newer methods have been developed. What can help is to determine what capabilities and features are needed such as hardness, corrosion resistance, lubricity, thcrmal conductivity, polishing, coating, and repairing. There are many tool metals used such as D2 steel that are occasionally used in their natural state (soft) when their carbon content is 1.40 to 1,60wt%. Tool metals such as P20 that are generally used in a pre-toughened state (not fully hardened). By increasing hardness longer tool life can often be achieved. Increased wear properties are especially critical when fabricating with abrasive glass- and mineral-reinforced plastics. This is important in high-volume applications and high-wear surfaces such as mold gates inserts and die orifices. Some plastic materials release corrosive chemicals as a natural byproduct during fabrication. For example, hydrochloric (HCI) acid is released during the tooling of PVC. These chemicals can cause pitting and erosion of untreated tools surfaces. Also, untreated surfaces may rust and oxidize from water in the plastic and humidity and other contaminants in the air. Polishing and coating tools permit meeting product surface requirements. Improved release characteristics of fabricated products are a commonly advantage of tool coatings and surface treatments. This can be critical in applications with long cores, low draft angles, or plastics that tend to stick on hot steel in hard-to-cool areas. Coatings developed to meet this need may contain PTFE (Teflon). Also used are metals such as chrome, tungsten, or electroless nickel that provide inherent lubricity. Torpedo An unflighted cylindrical portion of the plasticator screw usually located at the discharge end that is providing additional shear heating capabilities for certain plastics Transistor Semiconductor device for the amplification of current required in different sensing instruments. The two principle types are field effect and junction. Turnkey operation A complete fabrication line or system, such as an extruder with a thermoformer line with upstream and downstream equipment. Controls interface all the equipment in-line from material delivery to the end of the line handling the product for in-plant storage or shipment out of the plant. Tyvek DuPont’s trade name for a nonwoven spun bonded, tough, strong HDPE fiber sheet product. This thermoformable plastic material’s use includes packaging lids, medical device packages, mailing envelopes (protects contents, etc.), wrapping around buildings to completely seal off cracks and seams to prevent drafts and cut airflow penetration between the outside and inside (allows moisture to escape from the walls, eliminating or minimizing the prospect of harmful condensation damage), etc. Uptime See Processing line. Appendix B - Glossary 543 Vacuum mold cavity Press can include a vacuum chamber around or within the mold providing removal of air and other gases from the cavity( s). Value analysis VA is an amount regarded as a fair equivalent for something, that which is desirable or worthy of esteem, or product of quality having intrinsic worth. Aside from technology developments, there is always a major emphasis on value added services. It is where the fabricator continually tries to find ways to augment or reduce steps during manufacture with the target of reducing costs. While there are many definitions of VA, the most basic is the following formula where VA = (function of product)/(cost of the product). Immediately after the part goes into production, the next step that should be considered is to use the value engineering approach and thc FALL0 approach. These approaches are to produce products to meet the same performance requirements but produced at a lower cost. If you do not take this approach, then your competitor will take the cost reduction approach. VA is not exclusively a cost-cutting discipline. With VA you literally can do “it all” that includes reduce cost, enhance quality, and boost productivity. Van der Waals force Also called intermolecular forces, secondary valence forces, dispersion force, London dispersion force, or van der Waals attraction. It is an attractive force between two atoms or non-polar molecules, which arise because a fluctuating dipole moment in one molecule induces a dipole moment in the other, and the two dipole moments then interact. They are somewhat weaker than hydrogen bonds and far weaker than inter-atomic valences. Information regarding their numerical values is mostly semi-empirical, derived with the aid of theory from an analysis of physical and chemical data. Vent purifier The exhaust from vented plasticating barrels can show a dramatic cloud of swirling white gas; almost all of it is condensed steam proving that the vent is doing its job. However, a small portion of the vent exhaust can be other materials such as by-products released by certain plastics and/or additives and could be of concern to plant personnel safety and/or plant equipment. Purifiers can be attached (with or without vacuum hoods located over the vent opening) to remove and collect the steam and other products. The purifiers include electronic precipitators. Virgin plastic Plastics in the form such as pellets, granules, powders, flakes, liquids, etc. that have not been subjected to any fabricating method or recycled identifies virgin plastics. Viscoelasticity A material having this property is considered to combine the features of a perfectly elastic solid and a perfect fluid; representing the combination of elastic and viscous behavior of plastics (see Chapter 1) Viscometer Also called a viscosimctcr. This instrument is used for measuring the viscosity and flow properties of fluids such as plastic melts. Basically it is the property of the resistance of flow exhibited within a body of material. A commonly used type is the Brooffield that measures the force required to rotate a disk or hollow cup immersed in the specimen substance at a 544 Plastics Engineered Product Design predetermined speed. Other types employ such devices as rising bubbles, falling or rolling balls, and cups with orifices through which the fluid flows by gravity. Instruments for measuring flow properties of highly viscous fluids and molten plastics are more often called rheometers. viscosity It is the property of resistance to flow exhibited within the body of a material. In testing, it is the ratio of the shearing stress to the rate of shear of a fluid. Viscosity is usually taken to mean Newtonian viscosity in which case the ratio of shearing stress to rate of shearing is constant. In non- Newtonian behavior, which is the usual case with plastics, the ratio varies with shearing rate. Such ratios are often called the apparent viscosities at the corresponding shear rates. Viscosity, absolute It is thc ratio of shear stress to shear rate. It is the property of internal resistance of a fluid that opposes the relative motion of adjacent layers. Basically it is the tangential force on a unit area of either of two parallel planes at a unit distance apart, when the space between the planes is filled and one of the planes moves with unit velocity in its own plane relative to the other. The Bingham body is a substance that behaves somewhat like a Newtonian fluid in that there is a linear relation between rate of shear and shearing force, but also has a yield value. Viscosity, coefficient It is the shearing stress necessary to induce a unit velocity gradient in a material. In actual measurement, the viscosity coefficient of a material is obtained from the ratio of shearing stress to shearing rate. This assumes the ratio to be constant and independent of the shearing stress, a condition satisfied only by Newtonian fluids. Consequently, in all other cases that includes plastics non-Newtonian), values obtained are apparent and represent one point in the flow chart. Inherent viscosity refers to a dilute solution viscosity measurement where it is the ratio of the natural logarithm of the relative viscosity to the concentration of the plastic in grams per 100 ml of solvent. Intrinsic viscosity (IV) is a measure of the capability of a plastic in solution to enhance the viscosity of the solution. IV increases with increasing plastic molecular weight. It is the limiting value at infinite dilution of the ratio of the specific viscosity of the plastic solution to the plastic’s concentration in moles per liter. IV data is used in processing plastics. As an example the higher IV of injection-grade PET plastic can be extruded blow molded; similar to PETG plastic that can be easily blow molded but is more expensive than injection molded grade PET and PVC for blow molding. Viscoelasticity is perhaps better viewed more broadly as mechanical behavior in which the relationships between stress and strain are time dependent, as opposed to the classical elastic behavior in which deformation and recovery both occur instantaneously on application and removal of stress, respectively. Viscosity, intrinsic IV (intrinsic viscosity) is a measure of the capability of a plastic in solution to enhance the viscosity of the solution. IV increases Appendix B - Glossary 545 with increasing polymer molecular weight. It is the limiting value at infinite dilution of the ratio of the specific viscosity of the plastic solution to the plastic's concentration in moles per liter. IV data is used in processing plastics. As an example the higher IV of injection-grade PET plastic can be extruded blow molded; similar to PETG plastic that can be easily blow molded but is more expensive than injection molded grade PET and PVC for blow molding. Volumetric efficiency The volume of plastic discharged from the machine during one revolution of the screw, expressed as a percentage of the developed volume of the last turn of the screw channel. Vulcanization Methods for producing a material with good elastomeric properties (rubber) involves the formation of chemical crosslinks between high-molecular-weight linear molecules. The starting polymer (such as raw rubber) must be of the noncrystallizing type (NR is crystallizable), and its glass transition temperature T, must be well below room temperature to ensure a rubbery behavior. x-axis The axis in the plane of a material used as Oo reference; thus the y-axes is the axes in the plane of the material perpendicular to the x-axis; thus the z-axes is the reference axis normal to the x-y plane. The term plane or direction is also used in place of axis. Vulcanizing additive Thermoset elastomers must be vulcanized or crosslinked to obtain strong, dimensionally stable resilient materials. To accomplish this purpose, a formidable array of chemicals is employed. Classically, sulfur vulcanizes unsaturated elastomers such as SBR and natural rubber; however, because the rate of vulcanization is too slow for industrial applications, chemicals like benzothiazyl disulfide (MBTS) are added. The latter is typical of a class called accelerators. Along with accelerators, yet another group of additives called activators is used. Using the above example, zinc oxide and stearic acid are activators used in conjunction with the accelerator MBTS in the sulfur vulcanization of SBR or natural rubber. The sulfur, thiazole, zinc oxide, stearic acid vulcanization system is probably the largest used combination. Generally the types and concentration of the various vulcanization systems are selected along with appropriate cure retarders so as to obtain a good cured vulcanizate in a period of 15 to 60 min at temperatures ranging fi-om 138 to 177C (280 to 350F). Warpage It is the dimensional distortion in a plastic part after processing. The most common cause is variation in shrinkage of the part. The major processing factors involved are flow orientation, area shrinkage, and differential cooling. Weight, areal See Areal weight. Weld line Also called weld mark, flow line, or striae. It is a mark or line when Well It is the space provided in the cavity block for the uncured molding whitening See Stress whitening. two melt flow fronts meet during the filling of an injection mold. powder or preform. 546 Plastics Engineered Product Design x-axis The axis in the plane of a material used as Oo reference; thus the y-axes is the axes in the plane of the material perpendicular to the x-axis; thus the z- axes is the reference axis normal to the x-y plane. The term plane or direction is also used in place of axis. y-axis A line perpendicular to two opposite parallel faces. Yarn designation A term used to indicate the number of original singles (strands) twisted and the number of these units plied to form a yarn or cord. The first letter indicates glass composition, the second letter represents whether it is continuous or staple fiber, and the third letter indicates the diameter range of the individual fiber. As an example CD identifies type E glass with continuous fiber (C) of 0.00023 in. average fiber diameter (D). Yarn grex A universal yarn numbering system in which the yam number is equal numerically to the weight in g/lO,OOO m. Young's modulus See Modulus of elasticity. z-axis The reference axis perpendicular to x and y axes. Tradenames Achieve Metallocene polypropylene, Acrilan Polyacrylonitrile, AlliedSignal Acrylate Polyethylacrylate, Cyro Acrylite Acrylic sheet, acrylic resin, Adiprene Polyurethane (isocyanate), Affinity Plastomer, Dow Aqua-Novon Waterproof/water soluble degradation system, Novon. AquaBlok Water- blocking reinforcement, Owens Corning Aqualift Water-based external mold releases, Franklynn Araldite Epoxy resins and hardeners; epoxy structural adhesives, Ciba Aramid Nylon, DuPont Arathane Polyurethane adhesives, Ciba Aravite Cyanoacrylate and acrylic Ardel Polyarylate, BP Amoco Arimax Structural RIM resin, Ashland Armid Aliphatic amides, Akzo Armostat Antistatic agents, Akzo Arnits Thermoplastic polyesters, DSM Aroma Poly Fragrance polymer concentrates, Aroma Tech Aseelean High-performance purging agent, Sun Ashions Thermoplastic engineering resins, Ashley Exxon CYrO Bayer adhesives, Ciba ASP Water-washed kaolin, Engelhard Aspun Fiber grade resins, Dow Astrawax Amide wax, additive Atlac Thermoset polyester, Reichhold Attain ULDPE, Dow Aurum Polyimide resin, Mitsui Auto-Grader Online melt flow indexer, Brabender Autofioth Pressurized rigid fioth polyurethane foam systems, BASF Autoguage Automatic die, Production Components Cloeren Autopour Pressurized rigid polyurethane foam systems, BASF Autoprofile Gauge control, Battenfeld Gloucester Avantra Styrenic polymer resins, BASF Azdel Stampable reinforced plastic sheet, Azdel Azmet PBT and PET; glass fiber- reinforced composite, Azdel lubricant, AlliedSignal Bayblend ABS/PC blend, Miles Borax Nitrile-based barrier resin, BP Baybiond Polycarbonate/ABS blends, Baydur Rigid structural urethane Baydur STR Polyurethane composite hoc0 Bayer foam, Bayer solid or foam systems, Bayer 548 Plastics Engineered Product Design Boyertitan Titanium dioxide pigment, Bayer Baytit Polyurethane molded foam systems, Bayer Bayflex Polyurethane elastomeric RIM systems, Bayer Boytec Polyurethane cast elastomer systems and prepolymers, Bayer Betabrace Reinforcing composites, Dow Betamate Structural adhesives, Dow Betaseal Glass bonding systems, Dow Si-Ply Combination mat/woven roving, Owens Corning Bicor Biaxially oriented polypropylene, Mobil Black Pearls Pelletized carbon black, Cabot Blendo Resins for modifying polymers, GE Blue Star Antimony oxide, Great Lakes Bondmaster Structural adhesives, National Starch Britol White mineral oil, Witco Brushmaster Solvent-borne contact adhesives, National Starch Budene Polybutadiene, Goodyear Tire Buna CB Polybutadiene impact modifier, Bayer Cab-0-Sil Amorphous fumed silica, Cab-0-Sperse Aqueous silica Cadco Plastic rod, sheet, tubing, film, Cadet Organic peroxides, Akzo Cadon Styrene maleic anhydride resin, Cadox Organic peroxides, Akzo Calibre Polycarbonate resins, Dow Capran Nylon films, AlliedSignal Capran Unidraw Uniaxially oriented Capron Nylon resins and compounds, Cabot dispersion, Cabot Hanna Bayer nylon film, AlliedSignal ~~ ~~ ~ Cata-Chok Urethane foam catalysts, Ferro Caytur Curing agent, catalyst, Uniroyal Cefor Polypropylene, Shell Celanex PBT, Hoechst Celcon Polyacetal, Hoechst Celogen Blowing agents, Uniroyal Chemical Centrex Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylic blends, Monsanto Chernglas Glass fiber reinforcements, PTFE coated-woven, Chemfab Chemigum Nitrile rubber powder, Goodyear Chemlok Elastomer bonding adhesives, Lord Chimassorb Hindered amine light stabilizers, Ciba Chlorez Resin chloroparaffins, Dover/ICC Cho-Si1 Conductive EM1 shielding material, Parker Hannifin Chopvantage TP reinforcements, PPG CIM System Computer integrated manufacturing, Hunkar Class-Metor I, 11, IV, Economic process management system, Hunkar Classic Series HVLP spray guns, DeVilbiss Cleartuf PET resin, Shell Clysar Shrink film, DuPont Colorcomp Custom-colored heat resins, LNP Colartherm Zinc ferrite pigment, Bayer Comboloop Hydrocarbon wax blends, additive lubricants, AlliedSignal Combomet Woven roving mat, PPG Compax Supreme Mold steel, Compel Long fiber-reinforced TPs, Contracool Air-cooled extruder. Uddeholm Ticona kliedsignal Battenfeld Gloucester Appendix C - Tradenames 549 Corterra Polytrimethylene Corzan Chlorinated PVC, Crastin PBT PBT resin, DuPont CRATEC Dry-use chopped strands, Owens Corning CRATEC Plus Pelletized chopped glass fibers, Owens Corning Cronar PET photographic film base, DuPont Curithane Liquid catalysts, Dow Cycolac ABS, GE Cyrex Acrylic polycarbonate alloys, Cyrolite Acrylic- based multipolymers, terephthalate, Shell BFGoodrich Cyro Cy0 D-Tex lntermeshing twin screw extruder, Davis- Standard DAC Injection molding control, Hunkar Dacron Polyethylene terephthalate, DuPont Daltoped Elastomeric polyurethane systems, IC1 Daran Polyvinylidene chloride emulsion, Dow Daratak Polyvinyl acetate homopolymer emulsions, Dow Darex Styrene-butadiene latexes, Dow Dartek Cast film & sheet, nylon, Darvan Dispersing agents, Vanderbilt Dechlorane Plus Fire-retardant D.E.H. Epoxy catalyst resins, Dow Delrin Acetal resin, DuPont Delrin ST Tough acetal homopolymer, DuPont D.E.N. Epoxy novolac resins, Dow Derakane Epoxy vinyl ester resins, Desmodur Polyisocyantes for Desmophen Polyester resins for DuPont additive, Occidental Dow coatings, Bayer coatings, Bayer Diens Polybutadiene, Firestone Dion Unsaturated polyester, Direct Flow Manifold systems, Reichhold balanced hot runner manifolds, Incoe Vanderbilt Dixie Clay Filler for polyesters, Dowfrost Heat transfer fluids, Dow Dowlex LLDPE, Dow Dowtherm Heat transfer fluids, Dour Drapex Epoxy and polymeric Dri-Lac Pre-applied adhesive, Loctite DSB Barrier feedscrew, Davis- Standard Duradene Styrene- butadiene copolymers, Firestone Dural Rigid PVC, AlphaGary Duralron Polyimide, DSM Durez Powder and flake phenolic resin, Occidental Duro-Lam Hot-melt laminating adhesives, National Starch Duro-0-Set Polyvinyl acetate and ethlyene, National Starch DWP Dow window film, Dow Dylark Styrene-maleic anhydride Dylene Polystyrene, NOVA plasticizers, Witco copolymers, Arc0 Easigel Organ0 clay, Akzo Eastapak, PET, Eastman Eastar Copolyester thermoplastics; PETG, Eastman Easy Flow Easy-processing LLDPE film resins, Union Carbide ECRGLAS Corrosion-resistant glass fibers, Owens Corning Ektar PCTG, PET, PETG, Eastman Elastoflex R Semi-flexible Elvaloy Ethylene/ester/CO Elvamide Nylon multipolymer resins, Elvanol Polyvinyl alcoho1,'DuPont polyurethane systems, BASF terpolymers, DuPont DuPont [...]... 558 Plastics Engineered Product Design Ettenson, M W is with Ain Plastics of Michigan Inc.; graduate of Univ MassLowell; extensive experience in the plastics industry/OCF, Cadillac Plastics, etc., 2002 Evans, R, et ai., Guide to the New Microfabrication Design and Process Techniques, MDDI, Nov 2001 Ezrin, M., Plastics Failure Guide: Cause and Prevention, Hanser, 1996 Facts & Figures of the U.S Plastics. .. 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