35 Part I Life Cycle Approach 2722_C002_r02.indd 352722_C002_r02.indd 35 12/1/2005 11:29:01 AM12/1/2005 11:29:01 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 37 Chapter 2 Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling The most important benefi ts of Design for Environment (DFE) can only be obtained when the entire life cycle of a product is already taken into consid- eration at the design stage. Only a systematic vision of the product over its life cycle can, in fact, ensure that the design activity not only identifi es the product’s environmental criticalities, but also reduces them effectively and avoids simply transferring impacts from one arena to another. In this chapter a holistic vision of the product and its life cycle is presented, where the latter is no longer thought of as a series of independent processes expressed exclusively by their technological aspects, but rather as a complex product–life cycle system set in its environmental, economic, and sociotech- nological context. 2.1 Life Cycle Concept and Theory Originally conceived in the context of studies on biological systems, the concept of “life cycle” has become widely used as a model for the interpreta- tion and analysis of phenomena characterized by processes of change. It is applied in many wide-ranging fi elds, from social sciences to processes of technological innovation. This second case, in particular, represents one of the more interesting examples of the metaphor of biological evolution used in the management of industrial activities (Abernathy and Utterback, 1978). Beginning from this type of experience, the application of Life Cycle Theory to the development of industrial products has become a key factor in the management of technological innovation, where it is recognized as an effec- tive instrument of analysis and a useful aid to decision making. 2.1.1 Life Cycle Theory: General Concepts With regard to the study and understanding of the processes of development and evolution of organizational structures, management science has adopted 2722_C002_r02.indd 372722_C002_r02.indd 37 12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC different concepts and theories typical of other disciplines, used to explain processes of change in the context of social, physical, and biological sciences. These theories differ substantially in terms of the model by which they repre- sent the sequence of events (event progression), and in the mechanism by which they generate and guide change (generating force) (van de Ven and Poole, 1995). The Life Cycle Theory is one of the most widely used. It is based on the metaphor of the phenomena of organic growth typical of evolutionary biology, and has two salient characteristics: • Event progression is linear and irreversible (i.e., characterized by a unitary sequence wherein each intermediate phase is a necessary precursor of the subsequent phase). • Generating force consists of a predefi ned program, inherent in the entity that evolves, which is regulated by the environment in which the entity is conceived and develops (nature, in the case of biological systems; society, the market, and institutions in the case of manufac- turing organizations). Regarding the fi rst characteristic (event progression), Life Cycle Theory presumes that the progression of change events in a life cycle model is “a unitary sequence (it follows a single sequence of stages or phases), which is cumulative (characteristics acquired in earlier stages are retained in later stages) and conjunctive (the stages are related such that they derive from a common underlying process)” (van de Ven and Poole, 1995). According to this viewpoint, each phase of the cycle contributes to the development of the fi nal product and must be undertaken following a preestablished order, since its contribution is required for the completion of successive phases. Considering the second characteristic (generating force), according to Life Cycle Theory “the developing entity has within it an underlying form, logic, program, or code that regulates the process of change and moves the entity from a given point of departure toward a subsequent end that is prefi gured in the present state” (van de Ven and Poole, 1995). This characteristic, which defi nes the mechanism generating and guiding change, further clarifi es the relation between the entity’s internal evolutionary factor and the environ- ment in which it evolves: “External environmental events and processes can infl uence how the entity expresses itself, but they are always mediated by the immanent logic, rules, or programs that govern the entity’s development” (van de Ven and Poole, 1995). With these premises, Life Cycle Theory can, in principle, be applied to any system that undergoes a series of changes over the course of its existence. The entire life of the system takes the name “life cycle,” and the various phases following one after the other in the evolutionary process are called “life cycle phases” or “stages.” 38 Product Design for the Environment 2722_C002_r02.indd 382722_C002_r02.indd 38 12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling 39 2.1.2 Life Cycle Theory in the Management of Product Development At present, the use of Life Cycle Theory as an aid to decision making is fully accepted in the managerial context, above all with regard to some strategic management issues in industrial production—the management of the orga- nizational structures of production activities; market analysis and predic- tions based on the evolution of technologies; and the development of new products and their introduction into the market. At the base of this accep- tance of the life cycle concept as an analytical model for such widely varying phenomena, there is the understanding that both production activities and technologies, and products themselves, theoretically develop following an evolutionary path passing through different phases. With regard to products, this evolutionary perspective is now well-rooted in the fi eld of marketing (Massey, 1999). In the context of the management of products in relation to market dynamics, in fact, the life cycle is understood as the period during which the product is on the market. This period consists of four successive phases: introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. In this context, the objective of Life Cycle Theory is to describe the behavior of the product from development to retirement, to optimize the value of and the potential for profi t in each phase of the cycle (Ryan and Riggs, 1996). With this aim, life cycle becomes a representation of the product’s market history and each phase is characterized by the trend of the sales volumes and profi t performance (Cunningham, 1969), so as to guide the decisional choices of management regarding possible intervention strategies (marketing actions, pricing, service strategies, product substitution, etc.). In the same limited fi eld of marketing, the breadth of the potential offered by the life cycle approach has been clearly described by D.M. Gardner: “[P]roduct life cycle is an almost inexhaustible concept because it touches on nearly every facet of marketing and drives many elements of corporate strategy, fi nance and production” (Gardner, 1987). Likewise, the conceptual premises of Life Cycle Theory summarized above evidence the potential for its use in the management of other aspects of a product, as well. Considering, then, the product as a single entity that includes both the abstract dimension (need, concept, and project) and the concrete, physical dimension (fi nished product), its life cycle can be understood as a preestab- lished sequence of evolutionary phases wherein each phase is necessary for the execution of subsequent phases, and each provides a different contribu- tion to the development of the fi nal product. This is in full agreement with the concept of event progression, one of the fundamental principles of Life Cycle Theory. With clear reference to the management of product design and develop- phases from product conception and design to manufacturing and distribu- tion, and potentially can be extended to also consider the phases of use and 2722_C002_r02.indd 392722_C002_r02.indd 39 12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ment, and as shown in Figure 2.1, the evolutionary sequence includes all the 40 Product Design for the Environment disposal. The entire life cycle represented by this sequence is composed of two parts: • Development cycle—Indicates the fi rst part of the life cycle of the product–entity, understood in its abstract dimension. This part includes all the conventional process of product design and develop- ment, through which the need is translated into the fi nished design. • Physical cycle—Indicates the subsequent part of the life cycle of the product–entity, understood here in its tangible dimension as a fi nished product. This part includes all the phases the product passes through during its physical life. In this context, moreover, the need underlying the product concept and the design requisites interpret, respectively, the roles of generating factor and internal evolutionary factor of the product–entity. This follows the second fundamental principle of Life Cycle Theory, that of generating force. In particular, design requirements are translated into product properties that ideally can condition its behavior over the entire life cycle, and can therefore guide its evolution in relation to the different environments in which the product–entity evolves (not only the market, but the entire economic system, ecosystem, and society). The application of Life Cycle Theory to the management of product devel- opment, in the sense described above, and the concept of product life cycle corresponding to it, are summed up in the concept of product–system, intro- duced in the following section, fully interpreting the requirements of DFE. 2.2 Life Cycle and the Product–System Concept As noted previously, the most signifi cant benefi ts of DFE can only be obtained if the product’s entire life cycle, including other phases together with those FIGURE 2.1 Life Cycle Theory: Product–entity application. 2722_C002_r02.indd 402722_C002_r02.indd 40 12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM12/1/2005 11:30:18 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling 41 specifi c to development and production, is already considered at the design stage. Products must be designed and developed in relation to all these phases, in accordance with a design intervention based on a life cycle approach, under- stood as a systematic approach “from the cradle to the grave,” the only approach able to provide a complete environmental profi le of products (Alting and Jorgensen, 1993; Keoleian and Menerey, 1993). Only a systematic view can in fact guarantee that the design intervention manages to both identify the environmental criticalities of the product and reduce them effi - ciently, without simply moving the impacts from one phase of the life cycle to another. As noted in the previous section, the concept of product life cycle has different meanings in different contexts. Excluding the strictly marketing context (where it is understood to mean the phases of introduction, growth, maturity, and decline with regard to a product’s performance on the market), the term life cycle can be used in the management of product development to mean the entire set of phases from need recognition and design development to production. This usage can go so far as to include any possible support services for the product, but does not usually take into consideration the phases of retirement and disposal. This limited view of the life cycle has its origins in a statement of the prob- lem conditioned by the competencies and direct interests of different actors involved in the life of manufactured goods. This leads to a fragmentation of the life cycle according to the main actors: the manufacturer (design, produc- tion and distribution); the consumer (use); and a third actor, defi ned on the basis of the product typology (retirement and disposal). It is clear, therefore, that the managerial concept of life cycle springs from the interests of the manufacturer and does not usually include those phases subsequent to the distribution of the product. Given that the environmental performance of a product over its entire life cycle is infl uenced by interaction between all the actors involved, an effective approach to the environmental problem must be considered in the context of the entire society, understood as a complex system of actors including govern- ment, manufacturers, consumers, and recyclers (Sun et al., 2003). This system is also characterized by complex dynamics, since the various actors interact through the application of reciprocal pressures dependent on political, economic, and cultural factors (Young et al., 1997). Therefore, from a more complete perspective (not limited by the point of view of a specifi c actor), the life cycle of a product must include both its abstract and physical dimensions and extend the latter to include the phase of product retirement and disposal. This aspect fully interprets the life cycle approach which, in contrast to the limited view of the environmental question held by the single actor “manufacturer,” imposes a sort of “social planner’s view” (Heiskanen, 2002). 2722_C002_r02.indd 412722_C002_r02.indd 41 12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 42 Product Design for the Environment In general terms, therefore, the life cycle of a product can be considered lar manner, by the main phases of need recognition, design development, production, distribution, use, and disposal, as has already been suggested by other authors (Alting, 1993; Jovane et al., 1993). The concepts underlying industrial ecology (Section 1.2) require that the actions of the system of all actors are placed in the context of the global ecosystem, which includes the biosphere (i.e., all living organisms) and the geosphere (all lands and waters). On these premises, environmental analysis is oriented toward a view of the life cycle of a product associated with its physical reality (physical dimension of product–entity, Figure 2.1), focusing on the interaction between the environment and all the processes involved in the product’s life, from inception to disposal. From this perspective, the product becomes “a transient embodiment of material and energy occurring in the course of material and energy process fl ows of the industrial system” (Frosch, 1994), and the life cycle is under- stood as a set of activities, or processes of transformation, each requiring an input of fl ows of resources (quantities of materials and energy) and generat- ing an output of fl ows of byproducts and emissions. This vision is in perfect harmony with the analogy between industrial and natural systems at the basis of industrial ecology, according to which both system typologies are characterized by cycles of transformation of resources. For a complete analysis aimed at the evaluation and reduction of a prod- uct’s environmental impact, it is therefore necessary to take into account not only the manufacturing phases of production and machining, but also the phases of preproduction of materials and those of use, recovery, and disposal. Furthermore, all these phases must not be considered in relation to the specifi c actors involved, but rather in relation to the whole environment– system, taking a wider view and sidestepping direct responsibilities. These considerations can be summarized in a holistic vision of the product and its life cycle, wherein the latter is no longer thought of as a series of inde- pendent processes expressed exclusively by their technological aspects, but rather as a complex product–life cycle system set in its environmental and sociotechnological context (Zust and Caduff, 1997). It is then possible to speak of a product–system. In its most complete sense, the product–system includes the product (understood as integral with its life cycle) within the environmen- 2.3 Product–System and Environmental Impact From the specifi c viewpoint of environmental analysis, the product–system is characterized by fl ows of resources transformed through the various 2722_C002_r02.indd 422722_C002_r02.indd 42 12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC well-represented by the event progression shown in Figure 2.1, or, in a simi- tal, social, and technological context in which the life cycle evolves (Figure 2.2). Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling 43 processes constituting the physical life cycle. The environmental impact of this product–system is the result of life cycle processes that exchange substances, materials, and energy with the ecosphere. The different effects produced can be summarized in three main typologies (Guinée et al., 1993): • Depletion—The impoverishment of resources, imputable to all the resources taken from the ecosphere and used as input in the product– system (e.g., depletion of mineral and fossil fuel reserves as a result of their extraction and transformation into construction materials and energy) • Pollution—All the various phenomena of emission and waste, caused by the output of the product–system into the ecosphere (e.g., dispersion of toxic materials or phenomena caused by thermal and chemical emissions such as acidifi cation, eutrophication, and global warming) • Disturbances—All the phenomena of variation in environmental structures due to the interaction of the product–system with the ecosphere (e.g., degradation of soil, water, and air) Some of these impacts have a local effect while others act at the regional, continental, or global level. This distinction is important because the effects of these impacts on the environment can vary in different geographical contexts due, for example, to differing climatic conditions or soil typologies. Ultimately, to undertake the environmental evaluation of a product is “to defi ne and quantify the service provided by the product, to identify and quantify the environmental exchanges caused by the way in which the FIGURE 2.2 Schematic representation of a product– system. 2722_C002_r02.indd 432722_C002_r02.indd 43 12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 44 Product Design for the Environment service is provided, and to ascribe these exchanges and their potential impacts to service” (Wenzel et al., 1997). Ascribing the environmental impact of the product–system to the fl ows of exchange with the ecosphere, the main factors of life cycle impact can be summarized as: • Consumption of material resources and saturation of waste disposal sites • Consumption of energy resources and loss of energy content of products dumped as waste • Combined direct and indirect emissions of the entire product–system With regard to the fi rst aspect, the quantifi cation of the impact can be made only on the basis of an analysis of the distribution of the volumes of material in play over the entire life cycle. The energy and emission aspects, on the other hand, require a more complete approach that takes into account the energy and emission contents of the resources and of the fi nal products. In an elementary production process such as that shown in Figure 2.3, each typology of resource introduced (materials and energy) is characterized in terms of both energy and emission content, and a distinction is made between direct and indirect emissions. The energy and emission content of a material resource are, respectively, understood as: • The energy cost (i.e., the energy expended to produce the material) • All the emissions correlated with its production FIGURE 2.3 Scheme for the defi nition of a product’s environmental impact. 2722_C002_r02.indd 442722_C002_r02.indd 44 12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Life Cycle Approach and the Product–System Concept and Modeling 45 The energy and emission content of an energy resource are, respectively, understood as: • The sum of energy expended to produce this energy resource in the form in which it is used in the process • The sum of emissions correlated with its production Regarding the distinction between direct and indirect emissions, these are understood as, respectively: • The sum of characteristic emissions of the process itself (dependent on the materials, the type of process, and on the product of this process) • The sum of the emissions correlated with the production of the resources used by the process, therefore corresponding to the emis- sion content of the resources • The sum of the direct and indirect emissions quantifi es the total emissivity that can be associated with the process and, therefore, with the fi nal product. • The sum of the energy contents of the materials and of the energy introduced quantifi es the energy content of the fi nal product, and expresses the consumption of energy resources associable with it and with the activity that generated it. Following this scheme, the practical quantifi cation of a product’s energy and emission impacts comes down to obtaining the following information: • The quantity of material and energy resources introduced • The energy cost per unit weight of each material used • The energy cost per unit of energy used by the process (i.e., the quan- tity of energy needed to produce the unit of energy in the form used by the process) • The emissivity associable with the production of the unit weight of each material used • The emissivity associable with the production of the unit of energy • The direct emissivity associable with the process per unit of fi nal product (this can also encompass the waste per unit of fi nal product) The structure proposed above represents a conceptual schematization with which it is possible to defi ne in detail the environmental impact of an 2722_C002_r02.indd 452722_C002_r02.indd 45 12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM12/1/2005 11:30:19 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC With this structure, again referring to Figure 2.3, it is possible to say that: [...]... resources) The production phase, in particular the process of forming, © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 54 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :21 AM Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling FIGURE 2. 8 55 Phases of product manufacture generates discards and waste that cannot be recovered and are, therefore, destined for disposal as waste Finally, it should be noted that the manufacture... International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1997 Jovane F et al., A key issue in product life cycle: Disassembly, Annals of the CIRP, 42( 2), 651–658, 1993 Keoleian, G .A and Menerey, D., Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual, EPA/600/ R- 92/ 226 , U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH, 1993 Massey, G.R., Product evolution: A Darwinian or a Lamarckian phenomenon?,... represented and then evaluated consistently and rigorously” (Tipnis, 1998) © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 48 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:19 AM 49 Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling 2. 4.1 Approach to Environmental Performance The often-noted complexity of the environmental question indicates that a complete evaluation of a product s performance requires a holistic... life It also shows how the recovery flows can be distributed within the same life cycle that generated them, providing the postconsumption secondary resources for various activities or, alternatively, © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 56 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :21 AM 57 Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling FIGURE 2. 9 Complete physical life cycle of product and... 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 57 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :21 AM 58 Product Design for the Environment recovering part of the energy content of materials to be eliminated, saving virgin materials in other production cycles, and obtaining financial benefits through the sale of materials for recycling 2. 6 Summary For a complete analysis directed at evaluating and reducing the environmental impact of a product, it is necessary to... and semifinished pieces are prepared for the production of components • Production, involving the transformation of materials, production of components, product assembly, and finishing © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 52 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :20 AM 53 Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling • Distribution, comprising the packing and transport of the finished product. .. © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 47 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:19 AM 48 Product Design for the Environment When the emission per unit of product is determined quantitatively based on these factors, these quantities are usually translated into a unit equivalent that can characterize the damage caused to the environment by the quantity of substances emitted Some examples of environmental... 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 49 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :20 AM 50 Product Design for the Environment can be the transformation, handling, generation, use, or disposal of material resources, energy, data, or information (Tipnis, 1998) Appropriate activity modeling first requires a clear definition of the primary objective that is to be attained using the model, and of the initial viewpoint... vision of the product system (i.e., that the product is understood as integral with all the phases of its life cycle, in relation to the environmental, social, and technological context) Only with this holistic approach is it possible to reveal the effects of choices made in the design and production planning phases Therefore, only an adequate modeling of a product s life cycle can constitute a valid instrument... Define the boundaries of the system • Identify the elementary processes and functionalities FIGURE 2. 4 Reference activity model © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 50 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30 :20 AM 51 Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling • Identify and quantify the connections between elementary activities • Evaluate any possible changes in the activities and connections . Part I Life Cycle Approach 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 3 527 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 35 12/ 1 /20 05 11 :29 :01 AM 12/ 1 /20 05 11 :29 :01 AM © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 37 Chapter 2 Life Cycle Approach. “social planner’s view” (Heiskanen, 20 02) . 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 4 127 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 41 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:19 AM 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:19 AM © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 42 Product Design for the. Environment 27 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 3 827 22_ C0 02_ r 02. indd 38 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:18 AM 12/ 1 /20 05 11:30:18 AM © 20 06 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Life Cycle Approach and the Product System Concept and Modeling