Case Study 1 1960_book.fm Page 33 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC 35 2 Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve INTRODUCTION Waquoit Bay is a shallow lagoon-type estuary that lies along a glacial outwash plain on the south shore of Cape Cod (Figure 2.1). The bay covers an area of 600 ha, and it supports rich and diverse biotic communities. Although the bay only averages 1.8 m in depth (maximum depth 3 m), the water column is typically stratiÞed (D’Avanzo and Kremer, 1994). Surface water and groundwater inßows from the watershed mix with waters from Nantucket Sound and Vineyard Sound. Character- ized as a multiple inlet estuary, Waquoit Bay is bounded along its southern perimeter by barrier beaches that are breached at two permanent locations (Crawford, 2002). A navigation channel trending north–south bisects the main embayment into eastern and western sections. Proceeding upestuary, the bay is bounded by salt marshes, and it gives way to brackish ponds, freshwater tributaries, freshwater ponds, and upland habitat. Flat, Sage Lot, Hamblin, and Jehu Ponds are brackish ponds, and Bog, Bourne, and Caleb Ponds are freshwater ponds. FIGURE 2.1 Map of Waquoit Bay showing sub-basins of the estuary. (From Short, F.T. and D.M. Burdick. 1996. Estuaries 19: 730–739.) WAQUOIT BAY MASSACHUSETTS Tim’s Pond Off Shore Vineyard Sound Sage Lot Pond 500 m N Great River Central Basin Jehu Pond Hamblin Pond Moonakis River Childs River Eel Pond Washburn Island 1960_book.fm Page 35 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC 36 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection Waquoit Bay is the main aquatic component of the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (Waquoit Bay NERR), which is centered in the towns of Falmouth and Mashpee. Most of the reserve area consists of channels and open waters (~510 ha). Uplands cover ~300 ha, marshes (fresh-, brackish-, and salt-water marshes) >120 ha, and subtidal meadows ~70 ha (Geist and Malpass, 1996). The reserve encompasses an area of ~14.9 km 2 . It includes, in addition to the site headquarters (11.3 ha), public lands within South Cape Beach State Park (175 ha) and Washburn Island (133 ha). The Waquoit Bay NERR was designated in 1988 as the 15th site of the National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR) system (Geist and Malpass, 1996). WATERSHED The Waquoit Bay watershed covers more than 5000 ha. It stretches northward for ~8 km from the head of Waquoit Bay. Cambareri et al. (1992) delineated seven subwatersheds in the Waquoit Bay watershed: 1. Eel Pond 2. Childs River 3. Head of the Bay 4. Quashnet River 5. Hamblin Pond 6. Jehu Pond 7. Sage Lot Pond Figure 2.2 shows the boundaries of these subwatersheds. The Waquoit Bay watershed is comprised of a wide array of habitats, notably upland pitch pine/oak forests, pine barrens, wetlands (fresh-, brackish-, and salt- water marshes), riparian habitats, sandplain grasslands, vernal pools, and coastal plain pond shores, as well as barrier beaches and sand dunes. These habitats support numerous plant and animal populations, including some endangered, threatened, and rare species. Concern is growing with regard to future development and associated anthropogenic impacts in the watershed habitats. U PLAND P ITCH P INE /O AK F ORESTS The primary forest community in the Waquoit Bay watershed consists of a complex of pitch pines ( Pinus rigida ) and scrub oak trees ( Quercus ilicifolia ). It has formed on the acidic, well-drained sandy soils of the glacial outwash plain. A mix of sand and gravel, together with pebbles and small boulders, is evident along the surface in barren areas of the watershed (Malpass and Geist, 1996). In watershed areas north of the Waquoit Bay NERR, a pine barrens commu- nity of pitch pine ( Pinus rigida )/scrub oak ( Quercus ilicifolia ) has become established in response to periodic Þres, which generate nutrients from ashes in an otherwise nutrient-deÞcient habitat. This community, similar to that observed in the watershed areas of the Jacques Cousteau NERR in New Jersey, consists 1960_book.fm Page 36 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 37 of a unique complex of pitch pines and an understory of scrub oak and huckle- berry ( Gaylussacia baccata ) growing on relatively ßat terrane. Among the pre- dominant low-lying vegetation found under the larger trees are lichens ( Cladonia spp.), bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ), lowbush blueberry ( Vaccinium angus- tifolium ), and sweetfern ( Comptonia peregrina ). Frequent Þre shapes the pine barrens vegetative complex and appears to enhance the species diversity of the ßoristic assemblage, demonstrating the selective action of this natural process (McCormick, 1998). The lack of Þre favors the development of a climax forest of pitch pine and scrub oak trees. S ANDPLAIN G RASSLANDS Another ßoral community type in the uplands maintained by Þre, as well as by grazing, is the sandplain grassland complex. Consisting of treeless grasslands, this community occupies several areas of the highly porous sandy deposits of the uplands. However, increasing development poses a long-term threat to this habitat. Species of plants commonly reported in the sandplain grasslands include the little blue-stem FIGURE 2.2 Map showing Waquoit Bay subwatershed areas. ( From Geist, M.A. 1996. In: The Ecology of the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Geist, M.A. (Ed.). Technical Report, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp. II- 1 to II-22.) N SUBWATERSHEDS: 1: Eel Pond 2: Childs River 3: Head of the Bay 4: Quashnet River 5: Hamblin Pond 6: Jehu Pond 7: Sage Lot Pond A: Ashumet Pond B: John’s Pond C: Snake Pond D: Flat Pond 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 D AB C 1960_book.fm Page 37 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC 38 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection ( Schizachyrium scoparium ), sandplain gerardia ( Agalinis acuta ), bird’s foot violet ( Viola pedata ), and New England blazing star ( Liatris scariosa var. novae-angliae ) (Malpass and Geist, 1996). V ERNAL P OOLS AND C OASTAL P LAIN P OND S HORES The Mashpee outwash plain is marked by numerous water-Þlled depressions (i.e., kettles) formed during the Wisconsinan glacial epoch. Many of these depressions are vernal ponds that Þll with freshwater during the winter and spring but often dry out in summer due to excessive heat and evaporation. Although these ponds may be seasonally ephemeral, they provide valuable habitat for numerous anurans and other organisms. Several amphibian species breed here and thus depend on the habitat for successful reproduction. The yellow-spotted salamander ( Ambystoma maculatum ) is one such species. Exam- ples of other anurans that breed in vernal ponds are the American toad ( Bufo americanus ), green frog ( Rana clamitans melanota ), and red-spotted newt ( Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens ). The shoreline and surrounding areas of the vernal ponds are also impor- tant feeding and resting sites for many organisms. Similar habitat values exist in the perimeter areas of coastal plain ponds, such as at Achumet Pond and Caleb Pond. These groundwater-fed ponds are less transitory than the vernal ponds. Rare species habitats typically surround them (Malpass and Geist, 1996). R IPARIAN H ABITATS Willows ( Salix spp.), alder ( Alnus rugosa ), and other low-lying vegetation inhabit banks and moist perimeter areas of coastal plain streams in the Waquoit Bay water- shed. These plants grade into border forests of pitch pine ( Pinus rigida ) and scrub oak ( Quercus ilicifolia ). Phreatophytic vegetation proliferates in the moist soils of the riparian zone, which is characterized by thick shrub vegetation. While the coastal plain streams support an array of algal and vascular plant species, numerous invertebrates, various ÞnÞsh populations (e.g., eastern brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis ; white sucker, Catostomus commersoni ; white perch, Morone americana ; blueback herring, Alosa aestivalis ; and alewife, A. pseudoharengus ), insects (e.g., mosquitos, caddisßies, and mayßies), and other organisms, the sur- rounding land areas serve as important habitat for anurans (frogs and toads), reptiles (snakes and turtles), small mammals (e.g., rabbits, raccoons, squirrels, and skunks), and birds (waterfowl, song birds, and raptors). These riparian habitats provide protection and rich sources of food for numerous fauna. Many species also nest and reproduce here (Malpass and Geist, 1996). F RESHWATER W ETLANDS The common cattail ( Typha latifolia ) and common reed ( Phragmites australis ) dominate many freshwater wetland areas in the Waquoit Bay watershed. Other plant species frequently encountered in these habitats are the sheep laurel ( Kalmia 1960_book.fm Page 38 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 39 angustifolia ), sweet gale ( Myrica gale ), and twig rush ( Cladium marascoides ). Sphagnum sp. is likewise a signiÞcant constituent. As is the case for riparian habitats in the watershed, freshwater wetlands support a wide variety of reptilian, mammalian, and avian species, which use these habitats for feeding, breeding, reproduction, and loaÞng activities. A number of ponds, cranberry bogs, streams, and rivers in the Waquoit Bay NERR are bordered by luxuriant freshwater marshes. For example, freshwater marshes harboring diverse assemblages of plant and animal species occur along the shoreline of Johns Pond north of the bay and parts of South Cape Beach State Park. They continue to the south on the Childs River, which originates at Johns Pond. In addition to these areas, freshwater marshes also abut Ashumet, Bourne, Snake, and Fresh Ponds north of the bay, as well as Grassy, Flashy, and Martha’s Ponds. Other freshwater marsh habitat can be found along the perimeter of the Quashnet River and Red Brook. Cranberry bogs and marginal areas of kettle hole ponds likewise support freshwater marshes (Malpass and Geist, 1996). S ALT M ARSHES The Waquoit Bay NERR includes ~120 ha of salt marsh habitat, primarily at the head of Eel Pond and Waquoit Bay, in shoreline areas of Washburn Island, at the mouths of the Childs and Moonskis Rivers, and at the head of the Great River, as well as at Jehu, Sage Lot, and Hamblin Ponds. Smooth cordgrass ( Spartina alterni- ßora ) dominates the low marsh intertidal zone, and salt marsh hay ( S. patens ) predominates in the high marsh zone. Tidal action is a major controlling factor. Low marsh develops in protected areas subjected to semidiurnal tidal inundation, whereas high marsh forms at greater elevations affected only by extreme high tide (Malpass and Geist, 1996). Although the low marsh appears to be comprised of monotypic stands of Spartina alternißora , sea lavender ( Limonium nashii ) and glassworts ( Salicornia spp.) may also occur in this habitat. Aside from Spartina patens and Salicornia spp., the most common species of plants observed in the high marsh include the spike grass ( Dis- tichlis spicata ), black rush ( Juncus gerardi ), and marsh elder ( Iva frutescens ) (Malpass and Geist, 1996). Howes and Teal (1990) have compiled a comprehensive list of salt marsh species in the Waquoit Bay NERR (Table 2.1). They describe three distinct types of salt marsh wetlands in the reserve complex. The most expansive salt marshes occur at Hamblin Pond and Jehu Pond. At these sites, plant zonations and transition zones are broader than at other locations in the system. Species diversity is also greater here. Salt marsh habitat is likewise more extensive, and species diversity is greater along rivers than in the main body of the bay. Salt marshes surrounding the bay are spatially restricted with narrow plant zonations. M UDFLATS AND S ANDFLATS Tidal ßats are not well developed in the Waquoit Bay estuarine system, mainly because the tidal range only averages ~0.5 m. However, tidal ßats are conspicuous in three areas (Malpass and Geist, 1996): 1960_book.fm Page 39 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC 40 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection 1. At the eastern shore of Washburn Island 2. At the eastern shore of the head of the bay 3. At the outlet of the Moonakis River These protean habitats support a wide array of bivalves, gastropods, polychaetes, crustaceans, and other invertebrates. Among the most notable species encountered in these habitats are the gem clam ( Gemma gemma ), soft-shelled clam ( Mya arenaria ), and hard-shelled clam ( Mercenaria mercenaria ). Burrowing amphipods ( Corophium sp.) build U -shaped tubes in the sediments. The horseshoe crab ( Limulus polyphemus ) TABLE 2.1 Salt Marsh Plants Occurring in the Waquoit Bay Estuarine System a Common Name Scientific Name Salt marsh cordgrass Spartina alternißora Salt reed grass Spartina cynosuroides Salt marsh hay Spartina patens Spike grass Distichlis spicata Black rush Juncus gerardi Glasswort Salicornia europa Glasswort Salicornia bigelovii Woody glasswort Salicornia virginica Sea lavender Limonium carolinianum Chair-maker’s rush Scirpus americanus Salt marsh bullrush Scirpus maritimus Robust bulrush Scirpus robustus Seaside goldenrod Solidago sempervirens Marsh elder Iva frutescens Halberd-leaved orach Atriplex patulah Reed grass Phragmites communis Dusty miller Artemisia stelleriana Narrow leaved cattail Typha angustifolia Salt marsh ßeabane Pluchea purpurascens Poison ivy Rhus radicans Beach grass Ammophila breviligulata Beach pea Lathhyrus japonicus Salt marsh aster Aster tenufolius Bayberry Myrica pensylvanica Salt spray rose Rosa rugosa a Species listed in order of emergence. Source: Howes, B.G. and J.M. Teal. 1990. Waquoit Bay — A Model Estuarine Ecosystem: Distribution of Fresh and Salt Water Wetland Plant Species in the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. Final Technical Report, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C. 1960_book.fm Page 40 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 41 and blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) also frequent these environments. Polychaetes observed burrowing in tidal ßat sediments include such forms as clam worms (Nereis virens) and capitellids (e.g., Heteromastus Þliformis). Abundant infaunal species con- stitute a rich food supply for birds and other wildlife (Whitlach, 1982). BEACHES AND DUNES Two barrier beaches lie at the seaward end of Waquoit Bay, one extending eastward from the southern margin of Washburn Island and the other extending westward from South Cape Beach. Together, they stretch for more than 40 ha, enclosing most of Waquoit Bay and Eel Pond. Two jetties have been constructed on the east and west sides of the main inlet to Waquoit Bay. The two barrier beaches are highly dynamic features, which are constantly modiÞed by the action of wind, waves, tides, and currents. Major storms and heavy winds periodically cause the overwash of sediment into the back beach and lower bay areas, resulting in shoaling of the lower bay areas (Geist, 1996a). Plants trap windblown sand and promote the development of dunes on the barrier beaches. This process creates important habitat. Beach grass (Ammophila breviligu- lata) is an initial colonizer and dune stabilizer. Beach heather (Hudsonia tomentosa), beach pea (Lathyrus japonicus var. glaber), seaside goldenrod (Solidago sempervi- rens), and dusty miller (Artemisia stelleriana) are also important primary dune stabilizers along the barrier beaches (Cullinan and Botelho, 1990). Back dune areas harbor beach plum (Prunus maritima), bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica), salt spray rose (Rosa rugosa), and poison ivy (Rhus radicans). The dunes and associated vegetation form valuable habitat for shorebirds that forage, rest, reproduce, and nest on the barrier beaches. For example, herring gulls (Larus argentatus), laughing gulls (L. atricilla), and roseate terns (Sterna dougallii) forage along the beaches. Other species commonly rest here, including greater black-backed gulls (L. marinus), ring-billed gulls (L. delawarensis), and various species of terns (e.g., common terns, S. hirundo; least terns, S. antillarum; and Arctic terns, S. paradisaea). Least terns also use barrier beach habitats for breeding. Common terns and piping plovers (Charadrius melodus) utilize these habitats for nesting. Other shorebird species frequently observed on the barrier beaches are the semipalmated plover (C. semipalmatus), black-bellied plover (Pluvialis squa- tarola), willet (Catotrophorus semipalmatus), dunlin (Calidris alpina), least sand- piper (C. minutilla), semipalmated sandpiper (C. pusilla), sanderling (C. alba), short-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus), ruddy twinstone (Arenaria inter- pres), lesser yellowlegs (Tringa ßavipes), and greater yellowlegs (T. melanoleuca). Migrating shorebirds that stop over on Waquoit Bay beach and dune habitats during the spring and fall generally gain a signiÞcant amount of weight by foraging heavily in nearby coastal and estuarine waters. Waterfowl (e.g., bufßeheads, Bucephala albeola; eiders, Somateris mollissima; scoters, Melanitta sp.; and mergansers, Mer- gus serrator) often utilize the bay habitats as well, especially during the winter months (Malpass and Geist, 1996). The ongoing sea level rise associated with eustatic and isostatic changes and its effect on the long-term condition of the barrier beaches, salt marshes, and back 1960_book.fm Page 41 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC 42 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection bay waters of the system are a growing concern. The relative sea level rise in the Waquoit Bay area amounts to ~3 mm/yr, with land subsidence responsible for about two-thirds of this increase and eustatic sea level rise responsible for the remaining one-third (Giese and Aubrey, 1987). The barrier beaches are responding to the rising sea level by slowly migrating landward; the net movement of sand is from the forebeach to the back beach zone via wave and overwash action. Salt marshes behind the barrier beaches are also slowly migrating landward despite accretion rates in Waquoit Bay ranging from 2.8 to 4.6 mm/yr (Orson and Howes, 1992). Another result of rising sea level, according to Orson and Howes (1992), is the formation of freshwater swamps and bogs (e.g., at South Cape Beach). Greater human development and attempts to stabilize coastal features, however, act in opposition to dynamic natural forces shaping the beach and dune environ- ment and the back-bay areas. ESTUARY Floral and faunal communities are rich and diverse in Waquoit Bay and contiguous tidal creeks and channels. Salt ponds (e.g., Sage Lot, Jehu, and Hamblin Ponds) also support numerous organisms. Benthic algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, ÞnÞsh, and shellÞsh are well represented. Several species are of con- siderable recreational or commercial importance, such as the American eel (Anguilla rostrata), winter ßounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus), hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria), soft clam (Mya arenaria), and bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) (Crawford, 1996a). TIDAL CREEKS AND CHANNELS Great River and Little River are two tidal creeks in the Waquoit Bay complex. Great Bay connects Waquoit Bay to Jehu Pond, and Little River links bay waters to Hamblin Pond. Tidal creeks also feed Bog Pond and Caleb Pond, as well as Sage Lot Pond. Malpass and Geist (1996) discussed the benthic ßora and fauna as well as the Þsh assemblages occurring in the tidal creeks and channels. Benthic macroalgae are observed along the bottom of the tidal creeks and channels. While some macroalgal species drift passively over tidal creek ßoors (e.g., Ulva lactuca and Cladophora vagabunda), other, attached forms (e.g., Codium fragile and Fucus spp.) are anchored to the bottom. C. fragile often attaches via a holdfast to shell substrate and other hard surfaces that lie on bottom sediments. Common invertebrates in the tidal creek and channel habitats include barnacles (Balanus spp.), sea squirts (Molgula manhattensis), blue crabs (Callinectes sapi- dus), lady crabs (Ovalipes ocellatus), and mussels (Geukensia demissa). Other arthropods that may be encountered in these habitats are Cymadusa compta, Erichsoniella Þliformis, Hippolyte zostericola, Microdeutopus gryllotalpa, Neopanope texana, and Palaemonetes vulgaris. Polychaetes (e.g., Scoloplos fra- gilis) and echinoderms (e.g., Leptosynapta sp. and Sclerodactyla briarias) may also be found in the tidal creeks and channels. 1960_book.fm Page 42 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 43 Forage Þshes (e.g., mummichogs, Fundulus heteroclitus; striped killiÞsh, Fun- dulus majalis; Atlantic silversides, Menidia menidia; and sheepshead minnows, Cyp- rinodon variegatus) dominate Þsh assemblages in the tidal creeks and channels. These species spend most of their lives in these habitats. Other Þsh species residing in these waters are those forms utilizing the habitat as a nursery area. Examples are the blueÞsh (Pomatomus saltatrix), Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), and tautog (Tautoga onitis). WAQUOIT BAY Environment As a shallow coastal system, Waquoit Bay is highly responsive to local meteorolog- ical conditions, and it thus exhibits relatively large seasonal changes in water tem- perature. Over an annual period, water temperature in the bay ranges from near 0°C to >25°C. Salinity, in turn, ranges from <10‰ to ~32‰. Bottom sediments consist of silt and clay in deeper areas of the central bay, while coarser sands and shell predominate elsewhere in the system, particularly in nearshore habitats (Valiela et al., 1990; Ayvazian et al., 1992; Crawford, 2002). Organisms Benthic Organisms Eelgrass (Zostera marina) once covered much of the Waquoit Bay bottom, but progressive eutrophication and disease during the past several decades have essen- tially eliminated the beds in the bay (Crawford, 2002). In contrast, benthic macroal- gae (e.g., Cladophora vagabunda and Gracilaria tikvahiae) have become increas- ingly more abundant in the bay, carpeting extensive areas of the bottom (D’Avanzo and Kremer, 1994). Valiela et al. (1992) reported that the annual mean biomass of macroalgae in the Childs River exceeds 300 g/m 2 . This subestuary of the bay, bordered by the highest housing density in the area, receives elevated nutrient loads, which enhance algal growth. Greater inputs of nutrients also increase phytoplankton production and epiphytic growth in the bay; this accelerated plant growth leads to shading of the benthos, further impacting submerged aquatic vegetation. Macroalgal mats have become the dominant bottom-dwelling plant forms in the estuary complex. Dense mats of the Þlamentous green macroalga, Cladophora vagabunda, and the Þlamentous red macroalga, Gracilaria tikvahiae, predominate. Both of these algal species form thick ßoating mats that drift above the bay bottom (Hersh, 1996). The extensive mats have created a relatively new habitat type in the estuary. Other commonly occurring green algae in the system include Codium fragile, Enteromorpha spp., and Ulva lactuca. Aside from G. tikvahiae, several additional red macroalgal species (Agardhiella tenera, Chondras crispus, Polysipho- nia urceolata, and Grinnellia americana) have been reported in the estuary. Brown macroalgae of note are Petroderma maculiforme, Pseudolithoderma spp., Fucus spp., Laminaria agardhii, and Ralfsia spp. Table 2.2 is a list of invertebrates identiÞed in the Waquoit Bay complex. Eelgrass once provided a major habitat for many of the species, but its disappear- 1960_book.fm Page 43 Friday, August 15, 2003 1:37 PM Copyright © 2004 CRC Press, LLC [...]... Falmouth and Mashpee The Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 1960_book.fm Page 52 Friday, August 15, 20 03 1:37 PM 52 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection reserve consists of an array of watershed and estuarine habitats that are biologically productive The Waquoit Bay watershed is characterized by a wide variety of lowland and upland habitats, including wetlands (fresh-, brackish-, and salt-water... 15, 20 03 1:37 PM 54 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection Giese, G and D.G Aubrey 1987 Losing coastal upland to relative sea level rise: three scenarios for Massachusetts Oceanus 30: 16 22 Hersh, D 1996 Abundance and Distribution of Intertidal and Subtidal Macrophytes in Cape Cod: The Role of Nutrient Supply and Other Controls Ph.D thesis, Boston University, Boston, MA Howes, B.G and. .. (Ensis directus), and Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 1960_book.fm Page 46 Friday, August 15, 20 03 1:37 PM 46 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection mussels (Geukensia demissa and Mytilus edulis) Gastropods of signiÞcance include whelks (Busycon carica and B canaliculatum), moon snails (Lunatia heros and Polinices duplicatus), and slipper shells (Crepidula fornicata and C plana) Barnacles... watershed and estuary are atmospheric deposition, fertilizer use, and domestic wastewater In terms of nitrogen loading to the watershed, atmospheric Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 1960_book.fm Page 50 Friday, August 15, 20 03 1:37 PM 50 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection TABLE 2. 4 Nitrogen Loading Estimates from Atmospheric Deposition, Fertilizer, and Wastewater to Waquoit Bay and Losses... National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp III-1 to III -2 6 McCormick, J 1998 The vegetation of the New Jersey Pine Barrens In: Forman, R.T.T (Ed.) Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, pp 22 9 24 3 Orson, R.A and B.L Howes 19 92 Salt marsh development studies at Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts: inßuence of geomorphology on long-term plant community structure Estuarine, ... Workshop, Rottnest Island, Western Australia, 25 29 January 1996, Nedlands, Western Australia, pp 29 1 29 8 Sogard, S.M and K.W Able 1991 A comparison of eelgrass, sea lettuce macroalgae, and marsh creeks as habitats for epibenthic Þshes and decapods Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 33: 501–519 Valiela, I., J Costa, K Foreman, J.M Teal, B Howes, and D Aubrey 1990 Transport of groundwater-borne nutrients... (Crawford, 1996b, 20 02) These particle-reactive contaminants also concentrate in the surface water microlayer, and they can result in both lethal and sublethal impacts on plants and animals exposed to them (Albers, 20 02) The action of boat engine propellers roils bottom sediments and disturbs the surface water microlayer, facilitating the remobilization and dispersal of the contaminants (Kennish, 20 02) Propeller... Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Technical Report, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp IV-1 to IV-15 Crawford, R.E 1996b Recreational boating impacts In: Geist, M.A (Ed.) The Ecology of the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Technical Report, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp V-19 to V -2 2 Crawford, R.E 20 02 Secondary wake... National Estuarine Research Reserve Technical Report, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp VI-1 to VI -2 0 Geist, M.A 1996a The physical environment of Waquoit Bay In: Geist, M.A (Ed.) The Ecology of the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Technical Report, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Waquoit, MA, pp II-1 to II -2 2 Geist, M.A 1996b Estuarine. .. Strongylura marina Pomatomus saltatrix (continued) Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 1960_book.fm Page 48 Friday, August 15, 20 03 1:37 PM 48 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection TABLE 2. 3 (CONTINUED) Finfish Species Found in the Waquoit Bay Estuarine Complex Common Name Tautog Cunner Striped mullet Winter ßounder White hake Banded killiÞsh Marsh killiÞsh White perch Golden shiner Bridled . agricultural land 816 0.7 84 127 0.6 Wastewater 31, 323 28 67 10 ,24 1 47 Ponds upgradient b 2, 574 2 35 1,673 7 Grand total 1 12, 797 100 81 22 ,000 99 a Values in kg/N/yr. b Import from larger ponds and lakes. disappear- 1960_book.fm Page 43 Friday, August 15, 20 03 1:37 PM Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 44 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection TABLE 2. 2 Estuarine Invertebrates Identified in the. PM Copyright © 20 04 CRC Press, LLC 50 Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection deposition accounts for the largest fraction (55%), followed by domestic waste- water (28 %) and fertilizer