Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design and Management Advances in Agroecology Series Editor: Clive A. Edwards Soil Ecology in Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Lijbert Brussaard and Ronald Ferrera-Cerrato Biodiversity in Agroecosystems, Wanda Williams Collins and Calvin O. Qualset Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Louise E. Buck, James P. Lassoie, and Erick C.M. Fernandes Agroecosystem Sustainability: Developing Practical Strategies, Stephen R. Gliessman Advisory Board Editor-in-Chief Clive A. Edwards The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Editorial Board Miguel Altieri University of California, Berkeley, CA Lijbert Brussaard Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands David Coleman University of Georgia, Athens, GA D.A. Crossley, Jr. University of Georgia, Athens, GA Adel El-Titi Stuttgart, Germany Charles A. Francis University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE Stephen R. Gliessman University of California, Santa Cruz Thurman Grove North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC Maurizio Paoletti University of Padova, Padova, Italy David Pimentel Cornell University, Ithaca, NY Masae Shiyomi Ibaraki University, Mito, Japan Sir Colin R.W. Spedding Berkshire, England Moham K. Wali The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design and Management Edited by Masae Shiyomi Hiroshi Koizumi Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. CRC Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Structure and function in agroecosystem design and management / edited by Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi p. cm. (Advances in agroecology) Includes bibliographical references. (p. ). ISBN 0-8493-0904-2 (alk. paper) 1. Agricultural ecology. 2. Agriculture Environmental aspects. I. Shiyomi, Masae. II. Koizumi, Hiroshi, Ph.D.III. Series. S589.7 .S767 2000 338.1 ′62 dc21 00-049827 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or inter- nal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-0904-2/00/$0.00+$.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for cre- ating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2001 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0904-2 Library of Congress Card Number 00-049827 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper disclaimer 1/17/01 11:07 AM Page 1 Preface Today, the world faces many problems. The most important problem is the population explosion. The population of 2.8 billion around 1945 doubled during the following 50 years, and it will approximately double again, reach- ing 10 billion during the next 50 years. This population increase will produce serious effects on worldwide food consumption and distribution; however, a sharp production increase in agricultural products cannot be expected. During the next 50 years, all presently known deposits of natural gas and petroleum and those to be mined in the future will have been exhausted. This shortage of fossil fuel will seriously affect agricultural activities. Present agricultural practices cause environmental problems. Most peo- ple believe that agriculture is gentle to nature and the earth, as the green of agricultural fields comforts the human mind. However, the same green harms the earth. For example, CO 2 from agroecosystems is a greenhouse- effect gas and nitrogen fertilizer in runoff water from fields may cause eutrophication of lakes and rivers. These problems are discussed in the chap- ters that follow. In this book, biological interactions, matter circulation, and disturbances operating within the agroecosystems in question will be discussed by 31 sci- entists working in the fields of agricultural science and applied ecology. A major purpose of this book is to clarify the structure and function of individ- ual agroecosystems. Although this book does not attempt to give the entire picture of these agroecosystems, the authors stress the importance of studies to elucidate agroecosystems structure and function. These studies will make it possible to develop alternative types of agriculture in the twenty-first cen- tury. The authors live in different parts of the world: China, the Czech Republic, Finland, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, the U.K., and the U.S. We hope that such a wide range of experiences contribute to a world- wide ecdysis of present agriculture and to improvements of other types of agriculture. If this book can stimulate researchers and students in the fields of agroecology and agronomy in the world, our major objective will have been fulfilled. We express sincere gratitude to the contributors of the 19 chapters and to Professor Clive A. Edwards, The Ohio State University, for giving us an opportunity to write and edit this important book. Masae Shiyomi Hiroshi Koizumi 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page v 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page vi Editors Masae Shiyomi is a professor of the Faculty of Science at Ibaraki University, Mito, Japan. He is president of the Japanese Society of Grassland Science and the Japanese Agricultural Systems Society until 2001. He is a leader in grass- land science. He and his students are studying energy and matter flow and the modeling of grassland ecosystems. He is also an applied statistician, and his ecological work has been deeply enhanced due to his expertise in statistics. Professor Shiyomi was born in 1938 in Kyoto Prefecture. He graduated from the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Agriculture in 1961 and received the degree of Doctor of Agriculture from the University of Tokyo in 1980 with the thesis: “Mathematical ecology of spatial patterns of biological populations”; he also received the degree of Doctor of Science from Ibaraki University in 2000, based on his study titled “Spatial pattern of grassland vegetation— models and methods.” From 1961 to 1978, he worked at the Statistical Division, the former National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Japan. In 1978 he moved to the Ecology Department of the National Grassland Research Institute and Plant Ecology Division of the National Institute of Agro-Environmental Science in the same ministry and continued working there until 1994. In 1994, he obtained his present position at Ibaraki University. Professor Shiyomi has obtained various prizes: the Prize of the Japanese Society of Grassland Science, the Prize of the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Japan Prize of Agriculture, and the Agriculture Prize of the Yomiuri Newspaper Company for his studies of systems analy- sis and statistical ecology in agriculture. He received the title of Honorary Professor at the Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. He has written many books and scientific papers. His hobbies include writing Japanese-style poems and making Japanese-style flower arrangements. Hiroshi Koizumi is a professor of the Institute for Basin Ecosystem Studies at Gifu University, Gifu, Japan. He completed his undergraduate and gradu- ate education at the Department of Biology at Waseda University in Tokyo, receiving a M.S. degree in 1972 and Doctor of Science degree in 1986 with the thesis: “The life history of Pylora japonica populations and their light condi- tions.” As a research assistant he worked for approximately 3 years at the Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan. Thereafter he moved to the Plant Ecology Laboratory at the National Institute of Agro- Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan. In 1992 and 1993 he worked at the Crop Science Section of the Agricultural Research Centre of Finland to conduct cooperative research between Japan and Finland. In 1998 he obtained his present position at Gifu University. Professor Koizumi’s research activities have focused on the ecological physiology of forest floor plant species. He has been particularly interested in the light environment and carbon gain of understory herbs associated with 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page vii sunflecks in a forest. He has also been interested in primary productivity and the efficiency of solar energy utilization in several cropping systems. More recently, he has extended his research interests to environmental problems and sustainable land use. He is now focusing on carbon dynamics, budgets, and sequestrations in agricultural and forest ecosystems. 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page viii Contributors Hiroshi Amano Faculty of Horticulture Chiba University Matsudo, Japan amano@midori.h.chiba-u.ac.jp Zuozhong Chen Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, People’s Republic of China CHENZZ@botany.ihep.ac.cn Harry Clark AgResearch Grasslands Palmerston North, New Zealand harry.clark@agresearch.co.nz James E. Cooper Department of Applied Plant Science The Queen’s University of Belfast Newforge Lane Belfast, Northern Ireland komnbinat.cooper@btinternet.com Xiaoyong Cui Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, People’s Republic of China xiaoycui@fee.forestry.ac.cn Chris Doyle The Scottish Agricultural College Auchincruive, Scotland C.Doyle@au.sac.ac.uk Grant R. Edwards Environment Section of Wye College University of London Wye, U.K. sas00ge@wye.ac.uk Dimitrios G. Georgakopoulos Technological Education Institute of Crete Heraklio, Greece dgeorga@nefeli.imbb.forth.gr Kaija Hakala Agricultural Research Centre of Finland Institute of Crops and Soil Science Jokioinen, Finland Kaija.hakala@mtt.fi Daming Huang Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology Tsinghua University Beijing, People’s Republic of China huangdaming@hotmail.com Hiroyuki Kawashima Department of Global Agricultural Sciences The University of Tokyo Bunkyo, Tokyo Japan akawashi@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page ix Han Yong Kim Japan Science and Technology Corporation and Tohoku National Agricultural Experiment Station Morioka, Iwate Japan hykim@tnaes.affrc.go.jp Ralph Kirkwood The Scottish Agricultural College Auchincruive, Scotland Yuso Kobara National Institute of Agro- Environment Sciences Tsukuba, Japan kobara@niaes.affrc.go.jp Kazuhiko Kobayashi National Institute of Agro- Environment Sciences Tsukuba, Japan clasman@niaes.affrc.go.jp Hiroshi Koizumi Institute for Basin Ecosystem Studies Gifu University Gifu, Japan koizumi@ibi.green.gifu-u.ac.jp Mark Lieffering Japan Science and Technology Corporation and Tohoku National Agricultural Experiment Station Morioka, Iwate Japan lief@tnaes.affrc.go.jp Nikolaos E. Malathrakis Technological Education Institute of Crete Heraklio, Greece nmal@lyttos.admin.teiher.gr George Marshall The Scottish Agricultural College Auchincruive, Scotland G.Marshall@au.sac.ac.uk Bobbie McMichael USDA-ARS Plant Stress and Germplasm Development Unit Lubbock, Texas U.S.A. bmcmichael@lbk.ars.usda.gov Neil McRoberts The Scottish Agricultural College Auchincruive, Scotland N.McRoberts@au.sac.ac.uk Jonathan Mitchley T.H. Huxley School Imperial College at Wye Wye, U.K. J.mitchley@ic.ac.uk 920103_CRC20_0904_FM 1/13/01 11:30 AM Page x [...]... misim@upb.cas.cz 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_FM 1/ 13/ 01 11: 30 AM Page xii 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_FM 1/ 13/ 01 11: 30 AM Page xiii Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi 1 Part I Biological Interactions in Agroecosystems Chapter 2 Biodiversity in Agroecosystems and Bioindicators of Environmental Health 11 Maurizio G Paoletti Chapter 3 Species Diversity in Grasslands ... energy and its products on agricultural production have been so powerful, reliable, and dramatic, little attention has 0-8 49 3-0 90 4-2 / 01/ $0.00+$.50 © 20 01 by CRC Press LLC 1 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 2 1/ 13/ 01 10:42 AM Page 2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT been paid to the complex networks of biological interactions Figure 1. 1 illustrates such complex interactions operating in. .. nodule bacteria Some interrelationships of plants with herbivores, natural enemies of herbivores, mutualists, and abiotic factors (Reprinted with permission from Price, 19 84.) 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 4 1/ 13/ 01 10:42 AM Page 4 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT 12 11 Dollars returned from fertilizer used 10 Added cost equals added return 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Dollars... from upland crop and fallow fields, and methane is emitted by wetlands, including paddy fields, and grassland animals Thus, modern agricultural practices, which depend on inputs of fossil fuels, have exerted a variety of harmful effects on both the local ecosystem and the global biosphere 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 6 1/ 13/ 01 10:42 AM Page 6 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT. .. biological diversity, and nitrogen cycling in food production Unfortunately, we cannot treat 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 8 1/ 13/ 01 10:42 AM Page 8 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT the problems of biological invasion in this part of the book There is a danger, all over the world, that invading organisms disturb new habitats, drive the original habitants away, and damage food production... contained in Part I are as follows: biological diversity in agroecosystems, crop-weed interactions, the importance of studying biological interactions, relationships between insect pests and natural enemies, and the roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal, and interactions between plants and plant diseases Unfortunately, we cannot include chapters on intraspecific interactions and food-webs in this book Our main... target in developing an alternative system of agriculture is discovery, analysis, and utilization of more complex networks of biotic interactions operating in agroecosystems We should point out that the examples contained in these chapters are simple ones and do not reflect the full complexity of real systems Part II, Chapters 10 to 14 , focuses on the structure and functions of matter cycling in agroecosystems... sources of greenhouse-effect gasses, including carbon dioxide and methane (Yagi and Minami, 19 90; 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 1 /13 / 01 10:42 AM Page 5 INTRODUCTION 5 Norway Denmark Surinam France Thailand USA Canada New Zealand Chile Argentina Peru Paraguay Uruguay Australia Saudi Arabia Libya Mexico Algeria Venezuela Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia Spain Poland Malaysia Cuba UK Italy Switzerland Germany Israel... problems, we understand that such social problems are also a constituent of the structure and function of agroecosystems and are an important part of developing agriculture 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 1 /13 / 01 10:42 AM INTRODUCTION Page 7 7 This book will not deal with practical techniques, such as organic and nontillage farming, but with the fundamental, scientific principles of the structure and function of agriculture... 14 5 John C Zak and Bobbie McMichael Chapter 8 Species Structure and Abundance of Invertebrate Natural Enemies in Sustainable Agroecosystems 16 7 Hiroshi Amano Chapter 9 Plant Diseases and Plant Ecology 18 3 Nikolaos E Malathrakis and Dimitrios G Georgakopoulos 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_FM 1/ 13/ 01 11: 30 AM Page xiv . Pollinators PARASITES 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_CH 01 1 /13 / 01 10:42 AM Page 3 4 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT Figure 1. 2 Economics of fertilizer use, showing diminishing. 1/ 13/ 01 10:42 AM Page 1 2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN AGROECOSYSTEMS DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT been paid to the complex networks of biological interactions. Figure 1. 1 illus- trates such complex interactions. Texas U.S.A. yzjoz@ttacs.ttu.edu 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_FM 1/ 13/ 01 11: 30 AM Page xi 92 010 3_CRC20_0904_FM 1/ 13/ 01 11: 30 AM Page xii Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Masae Shiyomi and Hiroshi Koizumi . . . .