iii HANDBOOK OF MATERIALS FOR PRODUCT DESIGN Charles A. Harper Editor in Chief Technology Seminars, Inc., Lutherville, Maryland Third Edition McGRAW-HILL New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto 00Front.a Page iii Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:25 AM iv Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of materials and product design / Charles A. Harper, editor in chief. p. cm. ISBN 0-07-135406-9 1. Materials—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Engineering design—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Harper, Charles A. TA403.4.H365 2001 620.1'1—dc21 2001030028 CIP Copyright © 2001 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1234567890DOC/DOC07654321 ISBN 0-07-135406-9 The sponsoring editor for this book was Kenneth McCombs and the production supervisor was Pamela A. Pelton. It was set in Century Schoolbook by J. K. Eckert & Company, Inc. Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company. This book is printed on acid-free paper. McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in corporate training programs. For more informa- tion, please write to the Director of Special Sales, Professional Publishing, McGraw-Hill, Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2298. Or contact your local bookstore. Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ("McGraw-Hill") from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw- Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or dam- ages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. 00Front.a Page iv Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:25 AM E.1 ABOUT THE EDITOR Charles A. Harper is President of Technology Seminars, Inc., of Lutherville, Maryland. He is widely recognized as a leader in materials for product design, having worked and taught extensively in this area. Mr. Harper is also Series Editor for the Materials Science and Technology Series and the Electronic Packaging and Interconnection Series, both pub- lished by McGraw-Hill. He has been active in many professional societies, including the Society of Plastics Engineers, American Society for Materials, and the Society for the Advancement of Materials Engineering, in which he holds the honorary level of Fellow of the Society. He is a past President and Fellow of the International Microelectronics and Packaging Society. Mr. Harper is a graduate of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, where he has also served as Adjunct Professor. 99About Page 1 Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:25 AM v CONTENTS Contributors xiii Preface xi Chapter 1. Ferrous Metals 1.1 1.1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 The Structure of Iron 1.2 1.3 Steelmaking 1.6 1.4 Carbon and Alloy Steels 1.11 1.5 Selection of Alloy Steels 1.29 1.6 Selection and Specification 1.43 1.7 Welding Ferrous Metals 1.61 1.8 Summary 1.91 References 1.92 Chapter 2. Aluminum and Its Alloys 2.1 2.1 Introduction 2.1 2.2 Alloy and Temper Designation System 2.5 2.3 Physical Properties 2.27 2.4 Mechanical Properties 2.41 2.5 Corrosion Resistance 2.92 2.6 Product Forms 2.107 2.7 Fabrication 2.129 2.8 Joining 2.138 2.9 Finishes 2.162 2.10 Glossary 2.174 References 2.177 Chapter 3. Titanium 3.1 3.4 3.2 3.12 3.3 Properties 3.16 3.4 Corrosion and Corrosion Resistance 3.27 3.5 Alloys for Cryogenic Applications 3.33 3.6 Titanium Alloys for High-Temperature Applications 3.34 3.7 Casting Alloys 3.41 3.8 Precipitate and Dispersoid Strengthened Alloys 3.43 3.9 Wrought Alloy Processing 3.44 References 3.60 00Front.b Page v Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM 3.1 Basic Metallurgy Alloy Classification and Overview Introduction 3 . 1 vi HANDBOOK OF MATERIALS FOR PRODUCT DESIGN Chapter 4. Plastics 4.1 4.1 Introduction 4.1 4.2 The Nature of Plastics 4.6 4.3 Polymer Structures and Polymerization Reactions 4.8 4.4 Plastic-Processing Methods and Design Guidelines 4.10 4.5 Thermosetting Plastics 4.18 4.6 Thermoplastics 4.34 4.7 Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics 4.75 4.8 Plastic Films and Tapes 4.76 4.9 Plastic Surface Finishing 4.78 4.10 Material Selection 4.80 References 4.106 Chapter 5. Composite Materials and Processes 5.1 5.1 Introduction 5.1 5.2 Material Systems 5.5 5.3 Ply Orientations, Symmetry, and Balance 5.25 5.4 Quasi-isotropic Laminate 5.31 5.5 Analysis 5.32 5.6 Composite Failure and Design Allowables 5.35 5.7 Composite Fabrication Techniques 5.40 5.8 Analysis 5.76 5.9 Design of Composite Structures 5.78 5.10 Damage Tolerance 5.85 5.11 Composite Repairs 5.88 5.12 Adhesive Bonding and Mechanical Fastening 5.91 5.13 Environmental Effects 5.96 5.14 Composite Testing 5.98 5.15 Safety Issues with Composite Materials 5.103 References 5.105 Chapter 6. Part 1: Natural and Synthetic Rubbers 6.1 6.1 Historical 6.1 6.2 Properties of Polymers 6.3 6.3 General-Purpose Rubbers 6.5 6.4 Specialty Rubbers 6.7 6.5 Thermoplastic Elastomers 6.9 6.6 Characterizing Heat and Oil Resistance 6.10 6.7 Other Properties 6.15 6.8 Compounding Rubber 6.28 References 6.31 Suggested Readings 6.31 00Front.b Page vi Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM CONTENTS vii Chapter 6. Part 2: Elastomeric Materials and Processes 6.35 Introduction 6.35 Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs) 6.35 Polyurethane Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPUs) 6.45 Polyamides 6.56 Melt Processable Rubber (MPR) 6.58 Thermoplastic Vulcanizate (TPV) 6.60 Synthetic Rubbers (SRs) 6.67 Natural Rubber (NR) 6.83 Conclusion 6.85 References 6.85 Chapter 7. Ceramics and Ceramic Composites 7.1 7.1 Introduction 7.1 7.2 Ceramic Fabrication 7.3 7.3 Surface Properties of Ceramics 7.6 7.4 Thermal Properties of Ceramic Materials 7.9 7.5 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Substrates 7.14 7.6 Electrical Properties of Ceramics 7.22 7.7 Metallization of Ceramic Substrates 7.29 7.8 Ceramic Materials 7.40 7.9 Composite Materials 7.49 7.10 Forming Ceramics and Composites to Shape 7.57 References 7.60 Chapter 8. Inorganic Glasses 8.1 8.1 Commercial Glass Families 8.1 8.2 Special Glasses 8.37 8.3 Glass Making I—Glass Melting 8.82 8.4 Glass Making II—Glass Forming 8.102 8.5 Annealing and Tempering 8.119 8.6 Glass Fiber 8.145 8.7 Optical Communications Fiber 8.163 8.8 Notes and Acknowledgments 8.170 References 8.170 Bibliography 8.172 Chapter 9. Coatings and Finishes 9.1 9.1 Introduction 9.1 9.2 Environment and Safety 9.5 9.3 Surface Preparation 9.6 9.4 Coating Selection 9.12 9.5 Coating Materials 9.22 9.6 Application Methods 9.41 00Front.b Page vii Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 viii HANDBOOK OF MATERIALS FOR PRODUCT DESIGN 9.7 Curing 9.55 9.8 Summary 9.58 References 9.59 Chapter 10. Metallic Finishes and Processes 10.1 10.1 Fundamentals 10.1 10.2 Metallic Finishes and Processes 10.2 10.3 Aluminum Coatings 10.5 10.4 Cadmium Coatings 10.27 10.5 Chromium Coatings 10.35 10.6 Copper Coatings 10.44 10.7 Copper Alloy Coatings 10.50 10.8 Tin and Tin Alloy Coatings 10.54 10.9 Silver Coatings 10.63 References 10.66 Chapter 11. Plastics Joining Materials and Processes 11.1 11.1 Introduction 11.1 11.2 General Types of Plastic Materials 11.2 11.3 Types of Plastic Joining Processes 11.4 11.4 Direct Heat Welding 11.5 11.5 Indirect Heating Methods 11.20 11.6 Friction Welding 11.25 11.7 Solvent Cementing 11.37 11.8 Methods of Mechanical Joining 11.40 11.9 Recommended Assembly Processes for Common Plastics 11.50 11.10 More Information on Joining Plastics 11.61 References 11.62 Chapter 12. Plastics and Elastomers as Adhesives 12.1 12.1 Introduction to Adhesives 12.1 12.2 Design and Test of Adhesive Joints 12.15 12.3 Surface Preparation 12.32 12.4 Types of Adhesives 12.60 12.5 Selecting an Adhesive 12.82 12.6 Effect of the Environment 12.95 12.7 Processing and Quality Control of Adhesive Joints 12.107 References 12.119 Chapter 13. Testing of Materials 13.1 13.1 Introduction 13.1 Typical Paint and Coating Test Program 13.6 13.2 Chemical Characterization 13.14 00Front.b Page viii Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM CONTENTS ix 13.3 Thermal Analysis 13.24 13.4 Thermal Testing 13.32 13.5 Mechanical Testing 13.36 13.6 Miscellaneous Testing 13.44 Recommended Readings 13.54 References 13.54 Chapter 14. Materials Recycling 14.1 14.1 Introduction 14.1 14.2 Collection of Materials for Recycling 14.18 14.3 Ferrous Metal Recycling 14.22 14.4 Aluminum Recycling 14.26 14.5 Recycling of Other Nonferrous Metals 14.29 14.6 Glass Recycling 14.29 14.7 Paper Recycling 14.32 14.8 Plastics Recycling 14.50 14.9 Recycling of Rubber 14.97 14.10 Recycling of Textiles 14.98 14.11 Recycling of Wood 14.99 References 14.100 Index I.1 00Front.b Page ix Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM xi CONTRIBUTORS Thomas A. Andersen Northrop-Grumman Corporation, Baltimore, Maryland (C HAP . 10) R. J. Del Vecchio Technical Consulting Services, Fuquay-Varina, North Carolina (C HAP . 6) Simon Durham Pratt & Whitney Canada, Longuevil, Quebec, Canada (C HAP . 3) J. Donald Gardner Northrup Grumman Electronic Sensors and Systems Sector, Columbia, Maryland (C HAP . 1) Carl P. Izzo Industrial Paint Consultant, Export, Pennsylvania (C HAP . 9) J. Randolph Kissell TGB Partnership, Hillsborough, North Carolina (C HAP . 2) James Margolis Consultant, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (C HAP . 6) Perry L. Martin Martin Testing Laboratories, Yuba City, California, www.martintesting.com (C HAP . 13) Robert Ohm Uniroyal Chemical, Naugatuck, Connecticut (C HAP . 6) Stanley T. Peters Process Research, Mountain View, California, www.process-research.com (C HAP . 5) Edward M. Petrie ABB Power T & D Company, Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina (C HAPS . 11, 12) Jordon I. Rotheiser Rotheiser Design, Inc., Highland Park, Illinois (C HAP . 4) Susan E.M. Selke School of Packaging, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (C HAP . 14) Jerry E. Sergent TCA Inc., Corbin, Kentucky (C HAP . 7) Thomas P. Seward III New York State College of Ceramics, Alfred University, Alfred, New York (C HAP . 8) Arun Varshneya New York State College of Ceramics, Alfred University, Alfred, New York (C HAP . 8) Steven Yue McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (C HAP . 3) 00Front.b Page xi Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM xiii PREFACE While the role of materials has always been important in product design, materials are now often the keystones for successful products in our modern world of high technology. In fact, it might even be said that materials are the critical limiting factor for achieving the high performance and reliability demanded of today’s products. Next generation’s products usually require new or improved materi- als, and necessity often becomes the mother of invention. Materials scientists always rise to meet the need. Success in achieving outstanding materials is not adequate, however. Since most prod- uct designers are mechanical or electrical engineers, and since materials are chemical, these significantly different technical languages lead to a critical knowledge and under- standing gap. Successful product design requires, first, bridging this technical language barrier gap and, second, providing the product designer with the information, data, and guidelines necessary to select the optimum material for a given product design. It is the purpose of this Handbook of Materials for Product Design to provide both an understand- ing of the many classes of materials that the product designer has available to him, and the information, data, and guidelines that will lead the product designer to the best choice of materials for his specific product. Toward this end, this book has been prepared as a thor- ough sourcebook of practical data for all ranges of interests. It contains an extensive array of materials properties and performance data, presented as a function of the most impor- tant product variables. In addition, it contains very useful reference lists at the end of each chapter and a thorough, easy-to-use index. The chapter organization of this Handbook of Materials for Product Design is well suited for reader convenience. The initial three chapters deal with metal materials—first, the important ferrous metals, then second, the broadly used aluminum metals and alloys, and third, metals other than those covered in the first two chapters. The second set of three chapters covers polymeric materials first, the all-important group of plastic materials, then, second, that specially reinforced group of plastics known as composites, and third, that important group of rubbery polymeric materials known as elastomers . Next come two chapters on the two major groups of nonmetallic, inorganic materials, namely, ceramics and glasses. These are followed by two chapters on finishes, first organic finishes and paints, and second, electrodeposited or electroplated metallic finishes. Following all of the above chapters on specific groups of materials are two chapters on the always critical and often difficult areas of bonding materials. First is a chapter on the joining of plastics, with explanations of the various processes and their trade-offs. Next comes a very practical and useful chapter on the many adhesive bonding materials, tech- niques, and processes, along with their trade-offs. The final two chapters in the book are both increasingly important and critical in mod- ern product design applications. First is a chapter on materials testing and reliability, and second is a chapter on material recycling. These are especially important, since they affect not only optimum product design but also environmental and even legal issues. The result of these presentations is an extremely complete and comprehensive single reference text—a must for the desk of anyone involved in product design, development, and application. This Handbook of Materials for Product Design will also be invaluable for every reference library. 00Front.b Page xiii Thursday, May 31, 2001 10:26 AM [...]... one of these alloys on an engineering drawing is to use an American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) designation number followed by the strength grade desired ASTM specifications A 242, A 440, A 4 41, A 1. 14 Carbon steel Alloy steel (General purpose) AISI 10 06 10 95 (Free machining) AISI 10 08 11 51 (High manganese) AISI 15 13 15 72 (ASTM grades) A 611 A 619 A625, etc (Manganese) AISI 13 XX (Nickel) AISI 31XX–33XX... 20 01 9:49 AM Ferrous Metals TABLE 1. 1 1. 15 Major Groups in the AISI–SAE Designation System2 Class AISI series Carbon steels 10 xx Carbon steel 11 xx Resulfurized carbon steel 13 xx Manganese 1. 75% 15 xx Manganese 1. 00% 23xx Nickel 3.50% 25xx Nickel 5.00% 31xx Nickel 1. 25%, chromium 0.65 or 0.80% 33xx Nickel 3.50%, chromium 1. 55% 40xx Molybdenum 0.25% 41xx Chromium 0.95%, molybdenum 0.20% 43xx Nickel 1. 80%,... 11 , H 13 (Maraging) ASTM A538 (Proprietary) 17 -4 PH 17 -7 PH 15 -7 MO 15 -5 PH D6AC 300M Custom 455, etc Mill-heattreated (ASTM grades) A678 A 514 A633, etc (Proprietary) T -1 RQ-360 JALLOY 360, etc Special purpose (ASTM grades) A 414 –Pressure vessels A457–Hightemperature A496–Rebar A1 31 Ships, etc Etc 01Gardner Page 14 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM Steels for Machine Applications 01Gardner Page 15 Wednesday,...00Front.b Page xiv Thursday, May 31, 20 01 10:26 AM xiv HANDBOOK OF MATERIALS FOR PRODUCT DESIGN As will be evident from a review of the subject and author listings, I have had the good fortune to be able to bring together a team of outstanding chapter authors, each with a great depth of experience in his or her field Together, they offer the reader a base of knowledge as perhaps no other group... in sheet and strip form The discriminating characteristic of this class of steels is high strength Yield strengths usually exceed 17 5 ksi (12 06 MPa) Certain of the alloy steels are considered to be ultrahigh strength (e.g., 414 0, 01Gardner Page 16 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM 1. 16 Chapter 1 TABLE 1. 2 Outline of the Unified Numbering System for Metals3 UNS number Alloy system Axxxxx Aluminum and aluminum... major role in machine design for base plates, housings, chutes, structural members, and literally hundreds of different parts 01Gardner Page 12 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM 1. 12 Chapter 1 Alloy steel is not a precise term It could mean any steel other than carbon steels, but accepted application of the term is for a group of steels with varying carbon contents up to about 1% and with total alloy... degrees of formability, and it has been common practice to use the lowest (and lowest-cost) grade that will do the job High-strength sheet steels are available for appli- 01Gardner Page 21 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM Ferrous Metals 1. 21 Figure 1. 4 Formability of various tempers of 0.25% max carbon steel strip 2 cations where weight reduction is a concern ASTM specifications can be used for drawing designation... large coils (up to 15 ,000 lb) or in cut sheet form The largest volume use of these steels is for beverage cans, and for this application cut sheets are usually supplied The unit of measure for 01Gardner Page 22 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM 1. 22 Chapter 1 steel quantity is the base box A base box can be various weights, but it will consist of cut sheets with a total surface area of 217 .78 ft2 Different... accepted system of designating the various phases utilizes the chemical symbol of the element and letters of the Greek alphabet See Fig 1. 1 for the iron-carbon phase diagram Figure 1. 1 Major groups in the AISI-SAE designation system.2 01Gardner Page 4 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM 1. 4 Chapter 1 Fluid at temperatures near that of boiling water, most metals and alloys change from their solid to their liquid... availability If the designer is to make any sense out of handbook information, it is necessary to become familiar with the terms used to describe mill processing operations There are so many terms that it can be very confusing The following is a tabulation of steel product terms and what they mean 1. 3 .1. 3 01Gardner Page 10 Wednesday, May 23, 20 01 9:49 AM 1. 10 Chapter 1 Carbon steel Steels with carbon as the principal . 10 .63 References 10 .66 Chapter 11 . Plastics Joining Materials and Processes 11 .1 11 .1 Introduction 11 .1 11. 2 General Types of Plastic Materials 11 .2 11 .3 Types of Plastic Joining Processes 11 .4 11 .4 Direct. Welding 11 .5 11 .5 Indirect Heating Methods 11 .20 11 .6 Friction Welding 11 .25 11 .7 Solvent Cementing 11 .37 11 .8 Methods of Mechanical Joining 11 .40 11 .9 Recommended Assembly Processes for Common. Plastics 11 .50 11 .10 More Information on Joining Plastics 11 . 61 References 11 .62 Chapter 12 . Plastics and Elastomers as Adhesives 12 .1 12 .1 Introduction to Adhesives 12 .1 12.2 Design and Test of