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World Health Organization. “Tuberculosis.” 2000. <http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact104.html> (April 30, 2002). • • womi_bm 5/6/03 1:30 PM Page 641 Sources Consulted WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY World Water Day 2001. “Disease Fact Sheet: Campylobacteriosis.” 2001. <http://www.worldwaterday. org/disease/campylo.html> (January 24, 2002). 642 • • womi_bm 5/6/03 1:30 PM Page 642 Editor’s note: This is a historical chronology principally devoted to mark- ing milestones in human scientific achievement and is intended to provide a valuable reference that will enable readers to relate dates and events men- tioned in the text to the larger scope of related scientific achievement. Although mention is made of epidemics and pandemics, it is beyond the scope of this chronology to provide a comprehensive listing of such events. ca. 10000 B.C. Neolithic Revolution: transition from a hunting-and- gathering mode of food production to farming and animal husbandry, that is, the domestication of plants and animals. ca. 3500 B.C. Sumerians describe methods of managing the date harvest. ca. 700 B. C. The use of anatomical models is established in India. ca. 600 B.C. Thales, the founder of the Ionian school of Greek philosophy, identifies water as the fundamental ele- ment of nature. Other Ionian philosophers construct different theories about the nature of the Universe and living beings. ca. 500 B.C. Alcmaeon, Pythagorean philosopher and naturalist, pursues anatomical research and concludes that humans are fundamentally different from animals. He also differentiates arteries from veins. His work establishes the foundations of comparative anatomy. ca. 450 B.C. Empedocles, Greek philosopher, asserts that the Universe and all living things are composed of four fundamental elements: earth, air, fire, and water. ca. 430 B .C. Plague of Athens caused by unknown infectious agent. One third of the population (increased by those fleeing the Spartan army) die. ca. 400 B.C. Hippocrates, Greek physician, establishes a school of medicine on the Aegean island of Cos. According to Hippocratic medical tradition, the four humors that make up the human body correspond to the four elements that make up the Universe. Hippocrates suggests using the developing chick egg as a model for embryology, and notes that offspring inherit traits from both parents. ca. 400 B.C. The Greek philosopher Democritus argues that atoms are the building blocks of the Universe and all living things. Democritus was an early advocate of the preformation theory of generation (embryology). ca. 350 B.C. The Greek philosopher Aristotle attempts to classify animals and describes various theories of generation, including sexual, asexual, and spontaneous genera- tion. Aristotle argues that the male parent contributes “form” to the offspring and the female parent con- tributes “matter.” He discusses preformation and epi- genesis as possible theories of embryological development, but argues that development occurs by epigenesis. ca. 50 B.C. Lucretius proposes a materialistic, atomistic theory of nature in his poem On the Nature of Things. He favors the preformation theory of embryological development. HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY 643 • • womi_bm 5/6/03 1:30 PM Page 643 Historical Chronology WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY ca. A.D.70 Roman author and naturalist Pliny the Elder ( A.D. 23–79) writes his influential Natural History, a vast compilation combining observations of nature, sci- entific facts, and mythology. Naturalists will use his work as a reference book for centuries. ca. 160 Bubonic plague (termed “barbarian boils”) sweeps China. ca. 166 Antonine plague in Rome (possibly smallpox or bubonic plague) eventually kills millions throughout the weakening Roman empire. ca. 200 Galen, the preeminent medical authority of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, creates a philosophy of medicine, anatomy, and physiology that remains virtually unchallenged until the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. Galen argues that embryological development is epigenetic, although he disagrees with Aristotle about which organs are formed first and which are most important. 529 Byzantine Emperor Justinian closes the Academy in Athens that was founded by Plato and forbids pagan scientists and philosophers to teach. This causes an exodus of scientists to Persia. ca. 980 Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Abucasis) creates a sys- tem and method of human dissection along with the first formal specific surgical techniques. ca. 1150 Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), Germanic author, publishes The Book of Simple Medicine, a treatise on the medicinal qualities of plants and minerals. ca. 1267 Roger Bacon (1214–1292), English philosopher and scientist, asserts that natural phenomena should be studied empirically. ca. 1275 William of Saliceto creates the first established record of a human dissection. 1348 The beginning of a three-year epidemic caused by Yersinia pestis that kills almost one-third of the pop- ulation of urban Europe. In the aftermath of the epi- demic, measures are introduced by the Italian government to improve public sanitation, marking the origin of public health. 1490 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian artist and scientist, describes patterns of capillary action. 1492 Venereal diseases, smallpox, and influenza brought by Columbus’s expedition (and subsequent European explorers) to the New World. Millions of native peoples eventually die from these diseases because of a lack of prior exposure to stimulate immunity. In some regions, whole villages are wiped-out; and across broader regions, up to 95% of the native population dies as a result of exposure to these new pathogens. ca. 1525 Paracelsus (1493–1541), Swiss physician and alchemist, uses mineral substances as medicines. Denying Galen’s authority, Paracelsus teaches that life is a chemical process. 1542 Bubonic plague from China devastates Constantinople before advancing to repeatedly kill millions across Europe. 1543 Andreas Vesalius publishes his epoch-making trea- tise The Fabric of the Human Body. Vesalius gener- ally accepts Galenic physiological doctrines and ideas about embryology, but corrects many of Galen’s misconceptions regarding the human body. Vesalius is subsequently recognized as the founder of modern anatomy. 1546 Gerolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) writes a treatise on contagious diseases that identifies and names syphilis. He presents a rudimentary concept of the germ theory of disease. 1568 Zacharias and Hans Janssen develop the first com- pound microscope. The innovation opens new opportunities for the study of structural detail. 1600 Girolamo Fabrizzi (Fabricus ab Aquapendente) pub- lishes De formato foetu (On the formation of the fetus). The illustrations stir academic debate. 1604 German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) writes a treatise on optics. 1610 Jean Beguin (1550–1620) publishes the first text- book on chemistry. 1614 Italian physician Santorio Santorio (1561–1636) publishes studies on metabolism. 1628 William Harvey (1578–1657), English physician, publishes his Anatomical Treatise on the Movement of the Heart and Blood. This scientific classic pres- ents the first accurate description of blood circula- tion, tracing the course of blood through the heart, arteries, and veins. 1651 Harvey publishes On the Generation of Animals,, a treatise on embryology in which Harvey asserts that all living things come from eggs. He argues that oviparous and viviparous generation are analogous, but maintains support for the Aristotelian doctrine that generation occurs by epigenesis. 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam publishes records of observations of red blood cells. 644 • • womi_bm 5/6/03 1:30 PM Page 644 [...]... Candida albicans, 1:100, 2: 380, 2: 6 09, 2: 6 12, 2: 6 12 Candida glabrata, 1:100, 2: 6 12 Candida guilliermondi, 1:100 Candida krusei, 1:100 Candida parapsilosis, 1:100, 2: 6 12 Candida tropicalis, 1:100 Candidiasis, 1:100, 2: 6 12 skin infections, 2: 516–517, 2: 6 09 thrush, 1 :26 1, 2: 546–547, 2: 6 09 Canine distemper, 2: 575 Canning, 1 :22 4 22 5 Capsid, 1:3, 2: 583 See also Glycocalyx Capsule, 1:48 Carageenan, 2: 4 62. .. preservation, 1 :22 2 22 5 food safety, 1 :22 5 22 6 The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), 2: 544 mutagenesis, 2: 406 proteomics, 2: 457–458 protoplasts and spheroplasts, 2: 4 62 spectroscopy, 2: 524 – 525 transmission electron microscope (TEM), 1:1 79 180, 2: 388 viral vectors in gene therapy, 2: 578–5 79 Bioterrorism, 1:75– 79, 1:78, 2: 660 anthrax, 1: 19 22 , 1 :24 1, 2: 467 fume hood, 1 :22 9 23 0 genetic identification of microorganisms,... Brain-Hear Infusion (BHI) broth, 1 :25 5 Bread mold, 1 :23 2, 2: 4 09 Brenner, Sydney, 1:86–87, 1:141, 1 :23 9, 2: 375, 2: 656 Brevitoxin, 1:157 Brewers yeast, 2: 395 Bridges, Calvin Blackman, 2: 6 52 Brill-Zinsser disease, 2: 560 Brock, Thomas D., 1:88, 2: 540, 2: 657 Broglie, Louis Victor de, 1:1 52 153, 1:1 79 180, 2: 388, 2: 496 Bronchitis, 1:3 Brown algae, 1:6, 1: 323 – 324 , 2: 421 , 2: 460 Brown-Sequard, Charles-Edouard, 2: 650... ethical issues and socio-economic impact, 1 :90 – 92 Bubonic plague, 1 :93 95 , 1 :94 , 1:188, 1: 193 – 194 , 1 :27 4, 2: 644 Buchanan, Robert Earle, 1 :95 , 1 :20 7 Buchner, Eduard, 1:66, 1:1 92 , 1 :21 7 Buchner, Hans, 1:66, 1 :25 5, 1 :28 7 Budding See Yeast Buescher, Edward Louis, 2: 424 Buffer, 1 :95 96 , 2: 433 Bulb polio, 2: 446 Bulbospinal polio, 2: 446 Bull kelp, 1: 323 Bunyavirus group, 1 :26 3 Burke, David, 2: 610 Burkholderia... membranes and cell wall, 1:51– 52 cytoplasm, 1:145–147 electron microscopy examination of microorganisms, 1:1 electron transport system, 1:1 82 peptidoglycan, 1 :25 , 1:51, 2: 427 , 2: 428 , 2: 4 29 periplasm, 1:51, 2: 4 29 , 2: 453 phospholipids, 2: 435 • germ theory of disease, 1 :28 , 1 :24 6 24 7, 1 :27 3 growth and growth media, 1 :25 4 25 5 metabolism, 2: 376–377 metal deposition in, 1 :22 8 Petri, Richard Julius, 2: 430–431... 1: 92 , 2: 464 Alpha globulins, 1 :24 9 Alpha hemolysis, 1:80 Alpha radiation, 2: 4 79 Altman, Sidney, 2: 6 59 Altmann, Richard, 2: 650 Alzheimer’s disease, metals, 1: 92 Amantadine, 1:33, 1:116 Amber, fossils in, 1 :22 8 Amebiasis, 1:11 Amebic dysentery, 1:11– 12, 1:1 69, 2: 423 Entamoeba histolytica, 1:1 69, 1:186–187 Giardia and giardiasis, 1 :24 8 24 9, 2: 4 62 American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 1: 12, 1: 12 13, 2: 383... 2: 522 Blue-green algae, 1: 82 83, 1:154, 1 :20 3 chlorophyll, 1:1 19 chloroplast, 1: 120 fossils, 1 :22 8 gas vacuoles, 1 :23 5 lichens, 1:348, 2: 407, 2: 411 photosynthesis, 2: 436 Blue River virus, 1 :25 9 Boiling, to sterilize, 2: 531–5 32 Boinformatics and computational biology, 1:77 Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, 1:34, 1 :26 3 Bordet, Jules, 1:83–84, 1 :28 7, 2: 651 Bordetella pertussis, 2: 4 29 –430, 2: 527 Borel, Jean-François,... Animals, cloning, 1: 124 Anopheles mosquito, 2: 443–444 Anostraca, 2: 616 Anthrax, 1: 19 22 , 1 :20 antibiotics, 1 :21 , 2: 467, 2: 467 biological warfare, 1:70, 1:71 diagnosis of, 1 :24 1 enterotoxin and exotoxin, 1:1 89 inhalation anthrax, 1:70, 1:76 Koch, Robert, 1: 19, 1 :24 7, 1: 326 terrorist use of as a biological weapon, 1: 19 22 , 1 :24 1 Anthrax, terrorist use as a biological weapon, 1: 19 22 , 1 :22 , 1: Biological... radiation-resistant bacteria, 2: 478–4 79, 2: 5 32 Salmonella, 2: 503–504 sensitivity to temperature and pH ranges, 2: 404, 2: 433 sheathed bacteria, 2: 514 Shigella, 2: 514–515 spirochetes, 1:48, 1: 52, 2: 384, 2: 385, 2: 525 – 526 staphylococci and staphylococci infections, 2: 5 29 –530 streptococci and streptococcal infections, 2: 533–535 surface layers, 1:53 thermophilic bacteria, 1:133, 1 :21 1 transposons, 1: 126 , 1 :20 0, 2: 554 ultrastructure,... tumefaciens, 2: 4 42 AIDS, 1:7–10, 1 : 29 6, 2: 5 12 animal models of infection, 1: 19 antiviral drugs, 1:33 Elion, Gertrude Belle, 1:183–185 epidemics, 1: 196 – 198 human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV), 1 :28 1 Kaposi’s sarcoma, 1 :26 7, 1:314 mycobacteria, atypical, 2: 407 mycoplasma infections, 2: 408 pneumonia with, 2: 445 as public health issue, 1: 19 22 , 2: 467 recent advances in, 2: 401, 2: 486, 2: 493 – 494 retroviruses, 2: 486–487 . <http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/index.htm>. 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