– SENTENCE STRUCTURE– 45 PART OF SPEECH FUNCTION EXAMPLES noun names a person, place, thing, or concept water, Byron, telephone, Main Street, tub, virtue pronoun takes the place of a noun so that the noun I, you, he, she, us, they, this, that, themselves, does not have to be repeated somebody, who, which verb describes an action, occurrence, or state wait, seem, be, visit, renew of being helping verb combines with other verbs (main verbs) forms of be, do, and have; can, could, may, (also called to create verb phrases that help might, must, shall, should, will, would auxiliary verb) indicate tenses adjective describes nouns and pronouns; green, round, old, surprising; that (e.g., that can also identify or quantify elephant); several (e.g., several elephants) adverb describes verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, dreamily, quickly, always, very, then or entire clauses preposition expresses the relationship in time or space in, on, around, above, between, underneath, between words in a sentence beside, with, upon (see the list below). Placement of Modifiers As a general rule, words, phrases, or clauses that describe nouns and pronouns should be as close as possible to the words they describe. The relaxing music, for example, is better (clearer, more concise, and precise) than the music that is relaxing. In the first sentence, the modifier relax- ing is right next to the word it modifies (music). When modifiers are not next to the words they describe, you not only often use extra words, but you might also end up with misplaced or dangling modifier and a sentence that expresses something other than what was intended. This is especially true of phrases and clauses that work as modifiers. Take a look at the follow- ing sentence, for example: Racing to the car, I watched him trip and drop his bag. Prepositions: A Short List Prepositions are extremely important; they help us understand how objects relate to each other in space and time. Recognizing them can help you quickly check for subject–verb agreement and other gram- matical issues. Below is a list of the most common prepositions. See page 60 for notes about the most common prepositional idioms. about above across after against around at before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond by down during except for from in inside into like near of off on out outside over since through throughout till to toward under until up upon with without Who was racing to the car? Because the modifier rac- ing to the car is next to I, the sentence says that I was doing the racing. But the verb watched indicates that he was the one racing to the car. Here are two corrected versions: I watched as he raced to the car and dropped his bag. I watched as, racing to the car, he dropped his bag. In the first sentence, the phrase racing to the car has been revised to raced to the car and given the appropri- ate subject, he. In the second sentence, racing to the car is right next to the modified element (he). Here’s another example: Growling ferociously, I watched as the lions approached each other. It’s quite obvious that it was the lions, not the speaker, that were growling ferociously. But because the modifier (growling ferociously) is not right next to what it modifies (the lions), the sentence actually says that I was growling ferociously. Here’s the corrected version: I watched as the lions, growling ferociously, approached each other. Again, the sentence is clearer now because the modi- fier is right next to what it modifies. Sometimes, these errors can be corrected simply by moving the modifier to the right place (next to what it modifies). Other times, you may need to add a subject and verb to clarify who or what is modified by the phrase. Here are some more examples of misplaced and dangling modifiers and their corrections: I ncorrect: Worn and tattered, Uncle Joe took down the flag. C orrect: Uncle Joe took down the flag, which was worn and tattered. OR Uncle Joe took down the worn, tat- tered flag. I nc orre ct: While making breakfast, the smoke alarm went off and woke the baby. C orrect: While I was making breakfast, the smoke alarm went off and woke the baby. OR The smoke alarm went off and woke the baby while I was making breakfast.  Parallel Structure Parallel structure is an important part of effective writing. It means that words and phrases in the sentence follow the same grammatical pattern. This makes ideas easier to follow and expresses ideas more gracefully. Notice how parallelism works in the following examples: N ot parallel: We came, we saw, and it was con- quered by us. (The first two clauses use the active we + past tense verb construction; the third uses a passive structure with a prepositional phrase.) P arallel : We came, we saw, we conquered. (All three clauses start with we and use a past tense verb.) N ot parallel: Please be sure to throw out your trash, place your silverware in the bin, and your tray should go on the counter. (Two verbs follow the to + verb + your + noun pattern; the third puts the noun first, then the verb.) P arallel: Please be sure to throw out your trash, place your silverware in the bin, and put your tray on the counter. (All three items follow the to + verb + your + noun [+ prepositional phrase] pattern.) Parallelism is most often needed in lists, as in these examples, and in the not only/but also sentence pattern. – SENTENCE STRUCTURE– 46 Hermione’s nervousness was exacerbated not only by the large crowd, but also by the bright lights. (Each phrase has a preposition, an adjective, and a noun.) Their idea was not only the most original; it was also the most practical. (Each phrase uses the superlative form of an adjective—see page 59 for more information on superlatives.)  Active and Passive Voice In most cases, effective writers will use the active voice as much as possible. In an active sentence, the subject per- forms the action: James filed the papers yesterday. Jin Lee sang the song beautifully. In a passive sentence, on the other hand, the subject is acted upon rather than performing the action: The papers were filed by James yesterday. The song was sung beautifully by Jin Lee. Active sentences are more direct, powerful, and clear. They often use fewer words and have less room for confusion. There are times when the passive voice is preferred, such as when the source of the action is not known or when the writer wants to emphasize the recip- ient of the action rather than the performer of the action: Protective gear must be worn by everyone entering this building. As a general rule, however, sentences should use the active voice whenever possible. – SENTENCE STRUCTURE– 47 . racing to the car? Because the modifier rac- ing to the car is next to I, the sentence says that I was doing the racing. But the verb watched indicates that he was the one racing to the car. Here. for the exam.  Verbs Verbs are the “heart” of a sentence. They express the action or state of being of the subject, telling us what the subject is doing, thinking, or feeling. She yelled out the. by adding –ed. ■ If the verb ends with the letter e, just add d. ■ If the verb ends with the letter y, for the past tense, change the y to an i and add –ed. Some examples appear on the next page. –