landslide a rapid downhill movement of earth materials triggered by earth- quakes and severe weather Langmuir circulation near-surface alternating vortices aligned down- wind, generated by the interaction of waves and mean shear currents Laurasia (lure-AY-zha) a northern supercontinent of Paleozoic time, con- sisting of North America, Europe, and Asia Laurentia (lure-IN-tia) an ancient North American continent lava molten magma that flows out onto the surface limestone a sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate that is secreted from seawater by invertebrates and whose skeletons compose the bulk of deposits lithosphere (LI-tha-sfir) the rocky outer layer of the mantle that includes the terrestrial and oceanic crusts; the lithosphere circulates between Earth’s surface and mantle by convection currents lithospheric plate a segment of the lithosphere, the upper-layer plate of the mantle, involved in the interaction of other plates in tectonic activity lysocline the ocean depth below which the rate of dissolution just exceeds the rate of deposition of the dead shells of calcareous organisms magma a molten rock material generated within Earth and that is the con- stituent of igneous rocks magnetic field reversal a reversal of the north-south polarity of Earth’s magnetic poles magnetometer a devise used to measure the intensity and direction of the magnetic field manganese nodule a cobble-shaped ore on the deep-sea floor, which is rich in manganese and iron mantle the part of a planet below the crust and above the core, composed of dense rocks that might be in convective flow massive sulfides sulfide metals deposited from hydrothermal solutions megaplume a large volume of mineral-rich warm water above an oceanic rift Mesozoic (MEH-zeh-ZOE-ik) literally the period of middle life, referring to a period between 250 and 65 million years ago metamorphism (me-teh-MORE-fi-zem) recrystallization of previous igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks created under extreme temperatures and pressures without melting meteorite a metallic or stony celestial body that enters Earth’s atmosphere and impacts onto the surface microplate a small block of ocean crust surrounded by major plates Mid-Atlantic Ridge the seafloor-spreading ridge that marks the exten- sional edge of the North and South American plates to the west and the Eurasian and African plates to the east 292 Marine Geology midocean ridge a submarine ridge along a divergent plate boundary where a new ocean floor is created by the upwelling of mantle material Mohorovicic discontinuity/Moho (MOE-HOE) the boundary between the crust and mantle discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic mollusk (MAH-lusc) a large group of invertebrates, including snails, clams, squids, and extinct ammonites, characterized by an internal and external shell surrounding the body natural selection the process by which evolution selects species for survival or extinction depending on the environment nontransform fault small offsets with overlapping ridge tips at faults that offset the Mid-Atlantic Ridge nuée ardente (NU-ay ARE-don) an avalanche of glowing clouds of ash and pyroclastics olivine (AH-leh-vene) a green, iron-magnesium silicate common in intru- sive and volcanic rocks ophiolite (oh-FI-ah-lite) oceanic crust thrust upon continents by plate tec- tonics ore body the accumulation of metal-bearing ores where the hot hydrothermal water moving upward toward the surface mixes with cold sea water penetrating downward orogeny (oh-RAH-ja-nee) an episode of mountain building by tectonic activity outgassing the loss of gas from within a planet as opposed to degassing, the loss of gas from meteorites overthrust a thrust fault in which one segment of crust overrides another segment for a great distance oxidation the chemical combination of oxygen with other elements pahoehoe (pah-HOE-ay-hoe-ay) a Hawaiian term for ropy basalt lava paleomagnetism the study of Earth’s magnetic field, including the posi- tion and polarity of the poles in the past paleontology (pay-lee-on-TAH-logy) the study of ancient life-forms, based on the fossil record of plants and animals Paleozoic (PAY-lee-eh-ZOE-ic) the period of ancient life, between 540 and 250 million years ago Pangaea (pan-GEE-a) a Paleozoic supercontinent that included all the lands of the Earth Panthalassa (pan-THE-lass-ah) the global ocean that surrounded Pangaea peridotite the most common ultramafic rock type in Earth’s mantle period a division of geologic time longer than an epoch and included in an era photosynthesis the process by which plants form carbohydrates from car- bon dioxide, water, and sunlight 293 glossary phytoplankton marine or freshwater microscopic, single-celled, freely drifting plant life pillow lava lava extruded on the ocean floor giving rise to tabular shapes plate tectonics the theory that accounts for the major features of the Earth’s surface in terms of the interaction of lithospheric plates polarity a condition in which a substance exhibits opposite properties such as electric charges or magnetic fields precipitation products of condensation that fall from clouds as rain, snow, hail, or drizzle; also the deposition of rocks from seawater primary producer the lowest member of a food chain radiogenic pertaining to something produced by radioactive decay, such as heat radiolarian a microorganism with shells made of silica comprising a large component of siliceous sediments radiometric dating determining the age of an object by radiometrically and chemically analyzing its stable and unstable radioactive elements reef the biological community that lives at the edge of an island or conti- nent; the shells from dead organisms form a limestone deposit regression a fall in sea level, exposing continental shelves to erosion rhyolite (RYE-eh-lite) a potassium-feldspar–rich volcanic rock equivalent to granite ridge crest an axis of midocean volcanoes aligned along the edge of two plates extending away from each other rift valley the center of an extensional spreading, where continental or oceanic plate separation occurs Ring of Fire a belt of subduction zones around the Pacific plate related to volcanic activity Rodinia a Precambrian supercontinent whose breakup sparked the Cam- brian explosion of species seafloor spreading a theory that the ocean floor is created by the separation of lithospheric plates along midocean ridges, with new oceanic crust formed from mantle material that rises from the mantle to fill the rift seamount a submarine volcano that never reaches the surface of the sea seawall a structure built to protect against shore erosion seaward bulge the elevated seaward bulge produced by the bending of the subducting plate sedimentation the deposition of sediments seiche the oscillation of water in a bay seismic (SIZE-mik) pertaining to earthquake energy or other violent ground vibrations seismic sea wave an ocean wave generated by an undersea earthquake or volcano; also called tsunami 294 Marine Geology shield areas of the exposed Precambrian nucleus of a continent shield volcano a broad, low-lying volcanic cone built up by lava flows of low viscosity sonar an instrument for measuring the ocean floor with sound waves sounding the measurement of water depth with weighted lines spherules small, spherical, glassy grains found on certain types of mete- orites, on lunar soils, and at large meteorite impact sites storm surge an abnormal rise of the water level along a shore as a result of wind flow in a storm stratification a pattern of layering in sedimentary rocks, lava flows, water, or materials of different composition or density striae (STRY-aye) scratches on bedrock made by rocks embedded in a moving glacier stromatolite (stro-MAT-eh-lite) a calcareous structure built by successive layers of bacteria or algae and that has existed for the past 3.5 billion years subduction zone a region where an oceanic plate dives below a conti- nental plate into the mantle; ocean trenches are the surface expression of a subduction zone submarine canyon a deep gorge residing underwater and formed by the underwater extensions of rivers subsidence the compaction of sediments due to the removal of fluids surge glacier a continental glacier heading toward the sea at a high rate of advance during certain times symbiosis the union of two dissimilar organisms for mutual benefit tectonic activity the formation of Earth’s crust by large-scale movements throughout geologic time tectonics (tek-TAH-niks) the history of Earth’s larger features (rock for- mations and plates) and the forces and movements that produce them; see plate tectonics tephra (TE-fra) solid material ejected into the air by a volcanic eruption Tethys Sea (TEH-this) the hypothetical, midlatitude region of the oceans separating the northern and southern continents of Laurasia and Gond- wana several hundred million years ago thermal the amount of heat conducted per unit of time through any cross section of a substance, dependent on the temperature gradient at that section and the area of the section thermocline the boundary between cold and warm layers of the ocean tidal friction the loss of energy through heating caused by the movements associated with the tides tide a bulge in the ocean produced by the Sun’s and Moon’s gravitational forces on the Earth’s oceans; the rotation of the Earth beneath this bulge causes the rising and lowering of the sea level 295 glossary transform fault a fracture in Earth’s crust along which lateral movement occurs; a common feature of the midocean ridges created in the line of seafloor spreading transgression a rise in sea level that causes flooding of the shallow edges of continental margins traps a series of massive lava flows that resembles a staircase trench a depression on the ocean floor caused by plate subduction tsunami (sue-NAH-me) a seismic sea wave produce by an undersea or nearshore earthquake or volcanic eruption tubeworm a 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Virginia Beach,Virginia 173 Strait of Gibraltar 80 315 Marine Geology stratification 295g stratified sulfide deposits 10 striae 295g stromatolite 295g subduction 49, 65, 93 subduction zones 48 62, 63, 64, 102 , 106 m, 109 , 115, 161, 295g volcanoes of 118 ,144 submarine canyons 77–80, 295g submarine ridges 150 submarine slides 80, 203, 270–272 submarine volcanoes 114–144 subsea geysers 262–270 subsidence... mantle plumes 91, 95, 134 Mariana Islands 35 Saipan corals 236 Mariana seamounts 261 Mariana Trench 35, 107 , 111, 123, 258, 261 mariculture 227 marine exploration 31–59 marine life, McMurdo Sound, Antarctica 231 marine sanctuaries program 226 312 marine species 235–244, 229–256 marine transgression 194–200 marine worms 240, 246 Mars 7, dust storms 6 Marshall Islands, Bikini Atoll coral, 248 Martinique, Mt... sea cave 275 Great Sitkin Volcano 117 Knight Island 101 Kodiak Island 168 305 Marine Geology Alaska (continued) Kodiak tsunami 167 Lituya Bay tsunami 169 Mount St.Augustine 169, 170 North Slope 206 Prudhoe Bay 206 Seward Peninsula 14 Seward tsunami 168 Shoup Bay 168 Shumagin gap 104 terranes of 85 Valdez 207 Webber Creek pillow lava 68 Aleutians 107 Alexander terrane,Alaska 85 algae 227 alluvium 286g... 222-223 ocean trenches 107 t ocean waves 162–166 octopus 240, 244 offshore drilling 210 offshore oil wells 206 oil spills 208 olivine 65, 259, 293g Ontong Java 25, 138 ophiolites 14, 67, 83, 216m, 215, 218, 293g ore body 293g ore deposits 212m orogeny 293g outgassing 293g overfishing 226 overthrust 293g oxidation 293g oxygen 5, 10, 14, 70 ozone layer 5 P Pacific basin 75 313 Marine Geology Pacific Ocean... petroleum 206–211 Philippines, Mount Pinatubo Volcano 118 314 photosynthesis 10, 73, 230, 234, 293g phytoplankton 8, 233, 153, 234, 294g pillow lavas 14, 39, 66, 67, 68, 83, 100 , 101 , 215, 130, 251, 262, 263, 268, 294g pinnipeds 242 piston corer 40, 41, 42 planetesimals 3 plankton 20 plate collision 112 plate subduction 110, 110 113 plate tectonics 4, 9, 12, 46, 48, 58, 60, 61, 69, 70, 294g plunging... Chile Trench 82, 124 chimneys 264 chondrule 288g cinder cones 139 circum-Antarctic current 148, 245 circum-Pacific belt 101 106 , 115, 288g 307 Marine Geology circumpolar current 29, 288g clams 239 climate 288g climate change 74 coastal deserts 170 coastal erosion 181–186 coastal geology 172–199 coastal landslides 181 coastal subsidence 189–193 Halape, Hawaii 191 coastline submergence, Portland, Maine... 25, 26, 239, 286g Andes 85, 105 , 106 , 119, 120, 217 andesite 109 , 120, 286g Andonara Island, Indonesia 120 angelfish,Andros Island, Bahamas 250 Angus camera vehicle 38 anhydrite 283 annelids 240, 286g 306 Antarctic Sea 231, 246 Antarctica 25, 29, 32, 149, 231, 240 Arthur Harbor penguins 241 Daniell Peninsula 30 Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf 199 Larson Ice Shelf 197 McMurdo Sound marine life 231 Palmer Peninsula... dolomite 22, 23, 177, 219 dolphins 242, 244 drilling platform 209 drop stones 281 dune fields 203 dust surge ˆ dynamo effect 289g E earthquakes 63, 95, 101 , 115, 189, 289g earthquake zones 102 m East African Rift,Africa 29 East Pacific Rise 10, 38, 56, 90, 98, 100 ,130, 234, 251, 261, 262, 264, 266, 267, 268, 289g black smokers of 265 ebb tide 162 echinoderms 237, 290g economic zones 203m Ecuador, Galápagos... intertidal zone 223, 254–256 Clallam County, Washington 254 invertebrates 291g iridium 281 iron 10, 11, 157 island arcs 20, 46, 82, 102 , 107 , 115, 116, 122–124, 124, 234, 291g isostasy 63, 291g Isua Formation, Greenland 9 Italy,Venice subsidence 193 J Japan current 146, 157 Japan Fugi Volcano 118 Kobe 1995 earthquake 103 , 192 Myojin-sho Volcano 123 Niigata subsidence 191 Tokyo subsidence 192 Japan Trench... Little Ice Age 149 Lituya Bay,Alaska tsunami 169 Loihi Volcano, Hawaii 136 Loma Prieta earthquake, California 105 311 Marine Geology Long Beach subsidence, California 191 Long Island, New York 184 lophophore 239 Louisiana Grand Isle beach wave erosion 196 sea level rise 196 M Macquarie Ridge 108 m macrotides 224 magma 67, 89, 119–122, 292g magnetic field reversal 54, 55, 56t, 292g magnetic stripes 55 . ˆ dynamo effect 289g E earthquakes 63, 95, 101 , 115, 189, 289g earthquake zones 102 m East African Rift,Africa 29 East Pacific Rise 10, 38, 56, 90, 98, 100 ,130, 234, 251, 261, 262, 264, 266, 267,. Geodesy.” Science 256 (April 17, 1992): 333–341. 298 Marine Geology Green, D. H., S. M. Eggins, and G.Yaxley. “The Other Carbon Cycle.” Nature 365 (September 16, 1993): 210 211. Howell, David G. “Terranes.”. 1999): 1108 – 1109 . ———. “Ocean-in-a-Machine Starts Looking Like the Real Thing.” Science 260 (April 2, 1993): 32–33. Kunzig, Robert.“The Iron Man’s Revenge.” Discover 15 ( June 1994): 32–35. 300 Marine