other hand means 'black'. Thus there is a white god, god of light and day, and a black god, god of the shadows and of night: a god of good and a god of evil, opposed one to the other. The volkhvy, half priests, half sorcerers, of the pagan Slavs would say, according to certain written testimony: 'There are two gods, one above and the other below.' The Ukrainians still say: 'May the black god exterminate you!' In White Russia they believed in the existence of Byelun (derived from 'byely' - 'white'). In popular legends this divinity appeared as an old man with a white beard, dressed in white. He only showed himself during the daytime. His actions were always benevolent: he saved from harm those who had lost their way and helped unfortunate peasants with their work in the fields. The simple opposition of Byelobog and Chernobog being insufficient to explain the great variety of natural phenomena, other visions began to take shape against the black-white background of primitive mythology. THE WORSHIP OF NATURE: RUSTIC GODS: THE SKY AND ITS CHILDREN When the pagan Slav addressed his prayer to the sky and said: 'Sky, thou seest me! Sky, thou hearest me!' he was not using a metaphorical expression. He thought of the sky as a god, as a supreme being. Later, when anthropomorphic elements had penetrated the primitive religion of the pagan Slavs, they personified the sky as the god Svarog. The root of this name (svar means bright, clear) is related to the Sanskrit. The sky (Svarog) gave birth to two children: the Sun, called Dazhbog, and Fire, which was called Svarogich, meaning 'son of Svarog'. John Malala, a Byzantine chronicler, sums up the mythological cosmogony of the pagan Slavs in these terms: 'After Svarog reigned his son, named Sun who was also called Dazhbog The Sun is the king and son of Svarog; he is named Dazhbog, for he was a mighty lord.' The other son of Svarog, IFire (or ogon which can be compared to the Sanskrit agni) is mentioned in the work of a very ancient author called 'Unknown Admirer of Christ' who said of the pagan Slavs: 'They also address prayers to Fire, calling him Svarogich.' Svarog (the Sky) is thus the father of all other gods. According to an old Slavonic myth Svarog, after reigning over the universe, transmitted his creative sovereign power to his children. In many Slavonic countries rural folk still retain a mystic respect for fire, which has always had a sacred character. The old forbade the young to swear or shout at the moment when the fire was being lighted in the house. Legends and folk stories still retain poetic traces of the ancient myths when they speak of the 'Fire Serpent', a winged monster who breathed flames from his mouth. The Russian savant Afanasiev says of Svarog's other son, Dazhbog, the sun: 'Svarog, as a personification of the sky, sometimes lighted by the sun's rays, sometimes covered with clouds and brilliant with lightning, was considered to be the father of the Sun and of Fire. In the shadows of the clouds he would kindle the lightning's flame and thus he appeared as the creator of celestial fire. As for terrestrial fire, it was a divine gift brought to earth in the form of lightning. Hence it will be understood why the Slav worshipped Fire as a son of Svarog. Afterwards, splitting the clouds with flashing arrows, Svarog would cause the sun to appear, or, in the metaphorical language of antiquity, he would light the torch of the sun which had been extinguished by demons of the shadows. This noetic conception was also applied to the morning sun emerging from the veils of night. With the sunrise and the renewal of its flame the idea of its rebirth was connected. Svarog was thus a divinity who gave life to the Sun and birth to Dazhbog.' According to Slavonic myths and legends the Sun lived in the East, in a land of eternal summer and abundance. There he had his golden palace from which he emerged every morning in his luminous chariot, drawn by white horses who breathed fire, to cross the celestial vault. In a popular Polish tale the sun rode in a two-wheeled diamond chariot harnessed to twelve white horses with golden manes. In another legend the sun lived in a golden palace in the East. He made his journey in a car drawn by three horses, one silver, one golden and the third diamond. Among the Serbs the Sun was a young and handsome king. He lived in a kingdom of light and sat on a throne of gold and purple. At his side stood two beautiful virgins, Aurora of the Morning and Aurora of the Evening, seven judges (the planets) and seven 'messengers' who flew across the universe in the guise of 'stars with tails' (comets). Also present was the Sun's 'bald uncle, old Myesyats' (or the moon). In Russian folklore the Sun possessed twelve kingdoms - the twelve months or signs of the Zodiac. He lived in the solar disk and his children on the stars. They were served by the 'solar daughters' who bathed them, looked after them and sang to them. The daily movement of the Sun across the celestial sphere was represented in certain Slavonic myths as a change in his age: the Sun was bom every morning, appeared as a handsome child, reached maturity towards midday and died in the evening as an old man. The annual movement of the Sun was explained in an analogous fashirvn Certain Slavonic myths and legends give an anthropomorphic interpretation to the relationship between the Sun and the Moon. Though the name of the Moon - Myesyats - is masculine many legends represent Myesyats as a young beauty whom the Sun marries at the beginning of summer, abandons in winter, and returns to in spring. The divine couple of the Sun and the Moon gave birth to the stars. When the pair were in a bad mood and not getting on well together an earthquake would result. In other myths Myesyats is, on the contrary, the husband, and the Sun is his wife. A Ukrainian song speaks of the heavenly vault, 'the great palace whose lord is bright Myesyats with his wife the bright Sun and their children the bright Stars.' Even to-day certain Slavonic exorcisms are addressed to 'pretty little moon' and beseech her to cure illness etc. The hero of a Ukrainian song-legend speaks to 'little Sun: God, help me, man!' The Sun-god Dazhbog, great divinity of day and the light of day, conqueror of the shadows, of cold and of misery became synonymous with happiness. Men's destiny depended on him. He was just. He punished the wicked and rewarded the virtuous. The Slav of Galicia still says, when he wishes ill to a person: 'May the Sun make you perish!' And the Croatian peasant says: 'May the Sun avenge me on you!' We have referred above to a legend according to which the two 'solar daughters', the Auroras, stood at the Sun's side. The dawn -in Slavonic Zorya or Zarya - was also believed to be a divinity. Aurora of the Morning (Zorya Utrennyaya - utro meaning 'morning') opened the gates of the celestial palace when the Sun set forth on his daily journey across the heavens. Aurora of the Evening (Zorya Vechernyaya - vecher meaning 'evening') closed them again when the Sun came home. A myth of a later period attributes a special mission to the Zorya. 'There are in the sky,' it says, 'three little sisters, three little Zorya: she of the Evening, she of Midnight, and she of Morning. Their duty is to guard a dog which is tied by an iron chain to the constellation of the Little Bear. When the chain breaks it will be the end of the world.' The three little Zorya are thus the great protectresses of the entire universe. In some myths the two sister Auroras (Zorya) are accompanied by two sister Stars, the morning star Zvezda Dennitsa and the evening star Vechernyaya Zvezda. They share the work of the Zorya and tend the Sun's white horses. One of them, Dennitsa, in some legends replaces the Sun as wife of Myesyats (the male Moon). In a Serbian song-legend Myesyats reproaches Dennitsa: 'Where hast thou been, star Dennitsa, where hast thou been? Where hast thou wasted thy days? Where hast thou wasted thy days, three bright days?' In an old Russian exorcism Dennitsa appears as a divinity almost equal to the greatest of the gods. 'In the morning let us arise and pray to God and Dennitsa,' says this exorcism. In another exorcism the Evening Star is addressed: 'My mother, Vechernyaya Zvezda, to Thee I complain of twelve daughters, twelve wicked girls.' i.e. fevers. Pagan Slavs also believed in the god or the gods of the winds. A trace of this belief survives in a curious exorcism: 'On the sea, the ocean, on the isle of Buyan, live three brothers, the Winds: one is of the North, the second of the East, the third of the West. Blow, ye Winds, blow unbearable sadness to (such and such a girl) so that she cannot live a single day, a single hour without thinking of me!' The West Wind, soft and caressing, was named Dogoda. In certain legends there were as many as seven Winds. Among several Slavonic tribes we find the worship of a god of the Winds named Stribog. They also spoke of a Wind-god named Varpulis who formed part of the retinue of the god Perun and caused the noise of the storm. Erisvorsh was the god of the holy tempest. But the sound of these last names suggests a Lithuanian or Teutonic origin. MATI-SYRA-ZEMLYA The pagan Slavs worshipped the Earth as a special divinity, but we have little information about either her appearance or her cult. We only know that among the Russians she was called Mati- Syra-Zemlya which means 'Moist Mother Earth'. Mythological and ritual memories of belief in the Moist-Mother-Earth can be found in various customs and practices of the Slav peasants. In certain regions in the month of August the peasants arrive in the fields at dawn with jars filled with hemp oil. Turning towards the east they say: 'Moist Mother Earth, subdue every evil and unclean being so that he may not cast a spell on us nor do us any harm.' While they pronounce this prayer they pour the oil on the ground. Then they turn towards the west and say: 'Moist Mother Earth, engulf the unclean power in thy boiling pits, in thy burning fires.' Turning to the south they pronounce these words: 'Moist Mother Earth, calm the Winds coming from the South and all bad weather. Calm the moving sands and whirlwinds.' And finally turning towards the north they say: 'Moist Mother Earth, calm the North Winds and the clouds, subdue the snowstorms and the cold.' After each invocation oil is poured out and finally the jar which contained it is thrown to the ground. The Earth was a supreme being, sentient and just. She could predict the future if one knew how to understand her mysterious language. In certain parts of Russia the peasant would dig in the earth with a stock or simply with his fingers, apply his ear to the hole and listen to what the Earth said. If he heard a sound which reminded him of the sound made by a well-filled sleigh gliding over the snow his crop would be good. If, on the contrary, the sound was that of an empty sleigh his crop would be bad. The Earth was just and one must not deceive her. For centuries Slav peasants settled legal disputes relating to landed property by calling on the Earth as a witness. If someone swore an oath while placing a clod of earth on his head the oath was considered binding and incontestable. Traces of the ancient worship of the Earth could still be found in Russia on the eve of the first world war in an odd rite to which the peasants had recourse when they wished to preserve their village against an epidemic of plague or cholera. At midnight the old women would perambulate the village, secretly summoning the other women so that the men knew nothing about it. They would choose nine virgins and three widows who would be led out of the village. There they would all undress down to their shifts. The virgins would let down their hair, the widows would cover their heads with white shawls. They would then hitch one of the widows to a plough which was driven by another widow. The nine virgins would seize scythes while the other women grasped various objects of terrifying appearance including the skulls of animals. The procession would then march around the village, howling and shrieking, while they ploughed a furrow to permit the powerful spirits of the Earth to emerge, and so to annihilate the germs of evil. Any man who had the bad luck to meet the procession was felled without mercy. LITTLE RUSTIC DIVINITIES Christianity attacked pagan Slavonic mythology before it had completely bloomed. It was nipped, as it were, in the bud. With the victory of Christianity the great divinities vanished. But the dii minores, the little divinities, were able to escape the massacre. The Slavs, though Christians, preserved many pagan beliefs well into the twentieth century and peopled their material and spiritual world with a countless crowd of little gods and goddesses, of spirits good and evil. Domovoi. The Domovoi - derived from the word dom meaning 'house' - was the divinity or spirit of the-house. From superstition the Slav peasant avoided calling him by his official name: some designated him by the word 'grandfather' or 'master of the house' while others spoke of'him' or 'himself. The outward aspect of the Domovoi was vague. Usually he was a being in human shape, but hairy; he was covered with silky fur even to the palms of his hands which, otherwise, resembled a man's. Sometimes he had horns and a tail. On occasion he had the aspect of a domestic animal or even of an ordinary bundle of hay. It was difficult, not to say dangerous, for a person actually to see the Domovoi. His voice, however, was often heard and his groans and stifled sobs; his speech, while ordinarily soft and caressing, could also be abrupt or gloomy. This is how they explained the origin of the Domovoi and certain other little divinities: when the supreme god created heaven and earth one party of the spirits who surrounded him revolted. He drove these rebellious spirits from the sky and cast them to earth. Some fell onto the roofs of people's houses or into their yards. Unlike others who fell into the water or forests and remained wicked, these, through their association with men, became benevolent. The Domovoi would become so much at home in the house where he lived that he would be reluctant to leave it. When a Russian peasant built a new izba, his wife, before moving in, would cut a slice of bread and put it under the stove in order to attract the Domovoi to the new house. The Domovoi loved to live near the stove or under the threshold of the front door. As for his wife, called Do-mania or Domovikha, she preferred to live in the cellar. The Domovoi forewarned the inhabitants of the house of the troubles which threatened them. Before the death of someone in the family he wept. He would pull the wife's hair to warn her that her husband was going to beat her. The Domovoi appeared among the Slavs only after the family group became distinct from the tribal group. Previously there had been a spirit of the tribe itself, called Rod or Chur, terms which are impossible to translate but which signified ancestor or forefather. OTHER DOMESTIC SPIRITS In the neighbourhood of the Domovoi there were other spirits who may be considered as his near relations. Such were, for example, the Dvorovoi (from the word dvor or yard) who was the spirit of the yard; the Bannik (from the word banya or bath) who was the spirit of the baths and who lived in the little outhouse situated beside the izba, where the peasants took their baths; the Ovinnik (from the word ovin or barn) who was the spirit of the barn. A little farther removed from human company than the Domovoi, they were less friendly than he, without, however, being as fierce as the forest and water spirits. The Dvorovoi particularly detested all animals with white fur, such as white cats, dogs or horses. Only white chickens had no fear of the Dvorovoi because they were protected by a special divinity, the god of the chickens who was represented by a round stone with a hole in it which is sometimes found in the fields. To appease a Dvorovoi one could put a little sheep's wool in the stable, some small glittering objects and a slice of bread. When making this offering one had to say: 'Tsar Dvorovoi, master, friendly little neighbour, I offer thee this gift in sign of gratitude. Be kind to the cattle, look after them and feed them well.' If the Dvorovoi behaved too badly one could punish him by sticking a pitchfork into the wooden fence around the yard, or by beating the demon with a whip in which must be woven a thread drawn from a winding-sheet. The Dvorovoi also dreaded the dead body of a magpie hung up in the yard. Sometimes the Dvorovoi would fall in love with a woman. One of them conceived a passion for a girl and lived with her for several years. He plaited her hair and forbade her to unplait it. When she was thirty-five years old she decided to marry a man and on the even of her wedding she combed out her hair. Next morning she was found dead; she had been strangled in her bed by the Dvorovoi. The Bannik lived in the washhouse. He would permit three groups of bathers to enter, but the fourth turn was his. He would invite devils and forest-spirits to visit him. If he were disturbed while he himself was washing he would pour boiling water over the intruder and sometimes even strangle him. When leaving the bath it was necessary to leave a little water behind for the Bannik. The Bannik could be interrogated about the future. To do this you put your naked back through the half-open door of the wash-house and waited patiently. If the Bannik struck you with his claws it was a bad omen; if he caressed your back tenderly with the soft palm of his hand then the future was rosy. The Ovinnik (spirit of the barns) lived habitually in a corner of the barn. He generally had the aspect of a large dishevelled black cat. He could bark like a dog and laugh his head off. His eyes shone like burning coals. He was so ill-behaved that he was capable of setting the barn on fire. Only one domestic spirit was feminine. This was Kikimora who, in some regions, passed for the Domovoi's wife. The numerous myths, tales and legends about the Kikimora give no precise picture of her. Sometimes her sole duty was to look after the poultry; sometimes she took part in all household tasks, though only if the mistress of the house was herself diligent and hardworking. If she was lazy, the Kikimora gave her much trouble and tickled the children during the night. The only way to make friends with the Kikimora again was to go into the forest, gather ferns and prepare a fern-tea with which all the pots and pans in the kitchen must then be washed. The belief, still living, in all these domestic spirits is no more than a survival of the cult which the primitive Slavs rendered to divinities who protected their homes. We shall limit ourselves to listing in addition: Peseias and Krukis who protected the domestic animals (Krukis was also the patron of blacksmiths); Ratainitsa who watched over the stables; Pri- girstitis whose hearing was so acute that he distinguished the faintest murmurs and loathed shouting; Giwoitis who could be recognised in the shape of a lizard and who was given milk to drink. Among feminine divinities there were: Matergabia who directed the housekeeping and to whom one offered the first piece of bread from the kneading trough; Dugnai who prevented the dough from spoiling; Krimba, a goddess of the house who was worshipped principally in Bohemia. These names again sound Lithuanian, Scandinavian and Germanic. LESHY The lands which the ancient Slavs colonised and peopled were densely wooded. The colonisers had to cut their way across enormous forests, filled with dangers and the unexpected. It was natural that they should have run into the Leshy. Leshy, whose name is derived from the word les, the forest, was the spirit of the forest. Popular legends ascribed a human aspect to Leshy, but his cheeks were of a bluish hue because his blood was blue. His green eyes often popped out of their sockets, his eyebrows were tufted and he wore a long green beard. His hair was like a priest's. Sometimes popular imagination dressed him in a special costume: he wore a red sash and his left shoe on his right foot. He also buttoned his 'kaftan' the wrong way round. The Leshy threw no shadow. Even his stature was unstable; when he walked in the depths of the forest his head reached the tops of the tallest trees. When he walked on the forest's edge, through small bushes and grass, he turned into a tiny dwarf and could hide himself under a leaf. He avoided trespassing on his neighbour's land, but he jealously guarded his own kingdom. When a solitary traveller crossed the forest, or a peasant came to gather mushrooms or berries, or a hunter ventured too deep into the woods, then the Leshy would not fail to lead him astray, to make him blunder in every direction through the undergrowth, only to bring him back to the same spot again. He was, however, good-natured and almost always ended by releasing his victim, especially if the victim knew how to escape his spells. In order to do this, the wanderer must sit down under a tree-trunk, remove his clothes and put them on again backwards. Nor must he forget to put his left shoe on his right foot. The Leshy was not mortal although, according to certain legends, he was the offspring of a demon and a mortal woman. On the other hand 'Leshies' had at the beginning of every October to disappear or temporarily die - until the following spring. In spring they were wild and particularly dangerous. Full of anger and anguish - no doubt at the thought of their next disappearance -they would range the forest, whistling and shouting, imitating the strident laughter of over-excited women, sobbing in a human voice, and crying out like birds of prey and savage beasts. Some legends say that the Leshy had family instincts and give him a wife, the Leshachikha, and children, the Leshonki. They lived in the depths of the woods and committed their misdeeds in common. POLEVIK If every forest was inhabited by a Leshy every field was ruled by a Polevoi or Polevik. Pole meant 'field'. The outward appearance of the Polevik varied according to region. Sometimes he was simply someone 'dressed in white". Sometimes the Polevik had a body as black as earth and two eyes of different colours. Instead of hair, long green grass grew on his head. At times he would appear in the guise of a deformed dwarf who spoke a human language. The Polevik liked to amuse himself in the same fashion as the Leshy by misguiding belated travellers. It could happen that he would strangle a drunkard who had gone to sleep in his field instead of working in it. When this occurred the Polevik was often helped by his children who would run along the furrows, catching birds, which they would give to their parents to eat. To earn the good will of the Polevik one could make him an offering by placing in a ditch two eggs and an elderly cockerel who could no longer crow. But this must be done so that no one was present at the sacrifice. In the north of Russia the Polevik was sometimes replaced by the Poludnitsa (Poluden or polden means noon.) She was a beautiful girl, tall in stature and dressed entirely in white. In summer, at harvest time, she would walk in the fields and if she found a man or a woman working at midday she would seize him by the hair and pull it mercilessly. She would lure little children into the fields of corn and lose them. Other rustic divinities did not survive the victory of Christianity. We shall limit ourselves to mentioning only a few of them. Among the Poles the prosperity of the fields was the business of the gods Datan, Tawals, Lawkapatim, who especially presided over tilling the soil, and of the goddess Marzanna who fostered the growth of fruit. Modeina and Siliniets were gods of the forest. Cattle were placed under the protection of Walgino. Kurwaichin was especially responsible for lambs and Kremara for pigs. He was offered beer, poured into the fireplace. Priparchis weaned sucking pigs from their mother. Among other Slavs, divinities like Kricco were honoured. He protected the fruits of the field. Kirnis saw that the cherries ripened successfully. Mokosh was the god of small domestic animals and had an altar at Kiev. Zosim was the tutelary god of bees. Zuttibur was god of the forest. Sicksa was a forest sprite, a teasing, mischievous genie who could assume any form. The Vodyanoi was a water sprite, as his name suggests; for it comes from the word voda which means water. He was a malevolent and dangerous divinity who inhabited lakes, pools, streams and rivers. His favourite haunt was in the neighbourhood of mill-dams. Under the great mill-wheel many Vodyanoi would sometimes forgather. In appearance the Vodyany-ye were extremely varied. Some had a human face, but were furnished with outlandish big toes, paws instead of hands, long horns, a tail and eyes like burning coals. Others resembled men of vast stature and were covered with grass and moss. They could be quite black with enormous red eyes and a nose as long as a fisherman's boot. Often the Vodyanoi had the aspect of an old man with green hair and beard, but the beard changed colour and became white when the moon was waning. The Vodyanoi could also sometimes appear in the guise of a naked woman sitting in the water on the roots of a tree while she combed the streaming water from her hair. The Vodyanoi was also seen in the aspect of a huge fish covered with moss and again as an ordinary tree-trunk furnished with little wings and flying along the surface of the water. The Vodyanoi were immortal, but they grew younger or older with the phases of the moon. The Vodyanoi did not like human beings and lay in wait for the imprudent in order to drag them into the water. The drowned who fell into their deep and watery kingdom became their slaves. They lived in a crystal palace, ornamented with gold and silver which came from boats which had sunk, and lighted by a magic stone which shone more brightly than the sun. During the day a Vodyanoi would take his rest in the depths of his palace. In the evening he would come out and amuse himself by striking the water with his paws, making a noise which could be heard at a great distance. If he caught men or women bathing after sunset he would seize them. Whenever he approached the dam of a mill he would try to destroy it in order to let the water flow freely. In Russia not many decades ago millers, hoping to win the good will of the Vodyanoi, went so far as to push a belated passer-by into the millrace. In a lake in the region of Olonets in north Russia there lived a Vodyanoi who had a large family. To feed his many relations he required the corpses of animals and men, but the folk who lived around the lake were much too prudent to fetch water from it or bathe in it. The Vodyanoi at last fled to another lake by way of a river. RUSALKA When a maiden drowned - either by accident or on purpose -she became a Rusalka. This belief was common to all Slavonic peoples. But the image of this water-divinity was not everywhere the same. One could say that she varied according to climate and the colour of the sky and the waters. Among the Slavs of the 'blue' Danube the Rusalka - who in this case was called Vila - was a gracious being who retained some of her maidenly charm. Among the northern Russians the gracious, gay and charming Rusalki (plural of Rusalka) of the Danube and the Dnieper were transformed into wicked girls, of unattractive appearance, with uncombed and dishevelled hair. The facial pallor of the southern Rusalka resembled moonlight. Her northern sisters were wan and cadaverous, like the bodies of the drowned, and their eyes shone with an evil green fire. The Rusalki of the south often appeared in light robes of mist; those of the north were always crudely naked. The Rusalki of the Danube and the Dnieper sang delicious songs which were unknown to their sisters of the northern lakes and rivers. The southern Rusalki bewitched the passers-by with their beauty and their sweet voices. Those of the north thought only of brutally seizing the imprudent man or woman who late at night chanced to walk along the water's edge, to push him in and drown him. Death in the arms of a Rusalka from the land of sunshine and blue sky was almost agreeable, a kind of euthanasia. The Rusalki of the northern lands, on the contrary, submitted their victims to cruel and refined tortures. Slavonic legends attribute to the Rusalki a double existence, aquatic and silvan. Until the beginning of summer - until, in fact, 'Rusalki Week' - they lived in the water. During Rusalki Week they emerged from the water and went into the forest. They would choose a weeping willow or a birch with long slim branches which leaned over the river and climb up into it. At night in the moonlight they would swing in the branches, call out to each other, slip down from the trees and dance in the clearings. The southern Slavs believed that where the Rusalki trod when dancing, there the grass grew thicker and the wheat more abundant. But their behaviour could also be harmful. When they frolicked in the water they would climb onto the millwheel and stop it, they would break millstones, damage dikes and tear fishermen's nets. They could also send storms and torrential rains down on the fields, steal linen and thread from sleeping women. Luckily there was a sure method for thwarting the wickedness of the Rusalki: one need only hold in one's hand a leaf of absinth, 'the accursed herb'. Myths concerning the Rusalki reflect the general beliefs of the Slavs on the subject of death and the dead. Green trees, according to these beliefs, were the abode of the dead. When the sun had not yet 'entered the road of summer' the Rusalki, souls of the dead, could remain in the dark and chilly waters. But when these waters were warmed by the rays of the life-giving sun the Rusalki could no longer stay there. And they returned to the trees, the abode of the dead. CITY GODS AND WAR GODS We have already seen that on the edges of the Slavonic world where the Slavs came in contact with other peoples, such as the Germans and the Scandinavians, their mythology lost its primitive and rustic character, found fresh inspiration and took on new and less naive forms. Certain Russian scholars are even inclined to distinguish two mythologies - and almost two religions - among the pagan Slavs: the one that we have just described, which was common to the great masses composed of peasants, hunters, and fishermen and a second which was the mythology of the upper classes, of town dwellers and those who lived in fortified castles. In any case it is certain that the Slavs of the Baltic coast and those of Kiev had a more highly developed mythology than that which was based on the mere worship of elemental forces and the phenomena of nature. The Baltic Slavs - those of the Isle of Riigen, the mouth of the Elbe, etc. - worshipped a divinity named Svantovit. Some of the old chroniclers - Helmgolf, Saxo Grammaticus, etc. - have left us almost contemporary descriptions of Svantovit. In addition a statue of Svantovit was discovered in 1857 in Galicia on the banks of the river Zbruch. It was a crude and simplified copy of the statue which once occupied his principal temple at Arcona. The statue of Svantovit at Arcona, placed in a richly ornamented temple, was of great size. It had four heads facing in four directions. Svantovit held in his right hand a bull's horn filled with wine. Beside him hung an enormous sword, a saddle and bridle. In the temple there was a white horse. Each year the high priest would solemnly examine the contents of the bull's horn which Svantovit held in his hand; if much wine remained in it, that was a good omen - the year would be fruitful and happy. But if the quantity of wine in the horn had considerably diminished a year of famine and trouble must be expected. The white horse of Svantovit, maintained at the expense of the temple and venerated like its divine master, also served to reveal the future. The priests would fix in the ground several rows of spears and drive the horse of Svantovit through them. If it made the course smoothly without catching any of the spears with its hooves the future promised well. A flag - a war banner - was kept in the temple. The priests would show it to Svantovit's worshippers before they went to war. Besides the priests, an armed detachment of three hundred men was assigned to the temple of Svantovit. As well as Svantovit, the old chroniclers mention, among the peoples of the western branch of the Slavonic world, certain other divinities whose attributes were warlike: Rugievit, who was armed with eight swords, seven hanging from his girdle and the eighth in his right hand: Yarovit, who had a great golden shield which was venerated as a holy object. He also had his own banners, and the faithful would carry them and the shield when they went into battle. 294 — SLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY Then there was Radigast, who grasped in his hand a double-edged axe. On his chest he wore a bull's head and on his curly head a swan with outstretched wings. He was a sure counsellor, god of strength and honour. It is difficult to say if these gods were identical with Svantovit or if they were distinct and individual divinities. All at least had traits in common from which arose their character of gods of warfare and the city. According to the testimony of an old chronicler, Svantovit was considered to be the 'god of gods' and beside him all others were no more than demi-gods. Like Svarog he was the father of the sun and of fire. At the same time - as can be seen by his emblem, the bull's horn filled with wine - he was the god of plenty. Above all, however, he was a warrior and in war he always had his share of the booty. At the opposite end of the Slavonic world we find a divinity analogous to Svantovit, namely the god Pyerun. The origin of this name goes back to remotest Aryan times. Among the Hindus the god Indra was surnamed Parjanya, a word which has the same root as Pyerun. The word Pyerun is known in many Slavonic languages: Pyerun in Russian, Piorun in Polish, Perun in Czech, Peron in Slovak. Among the Lithuanians we often find the name Perkaunas. In the Mater Verborum (1202) the name Pyerun is translated by the name Jupiter. In the popular language of Poland we discover not only the semantic origin of the name Pyerun but also an explanation of his mythological character. For in Polish piorun means 'thunder'. Neither history nor tradition has preserved anything exact on the subject of Pyerun's divine image. We only know that there was in Kiev until the end of the tenth century a wooden idol of Pyerun. He was incontestably the god of war. For not only was the thunderbolt considered by the pagan Slavs to be the most redoubtable divine weapon but old Russian chronicles explicitly state that there was a direct connection between war and Pyerun. When the first princes of Kiev brought a war with the Greeks to a conclusion by an honourable peace their troops pledged their word by their weapons and invoked the name of Pyerun. We read in an old chronicle that Olga, one of the first sovereigns of Kiev, 'led her warriors into batlle; and according to the Russian law they swore by their arms and invoked Pyerun. Igor, prince of Kiev, climbed the hill where the image of Pyerun stood and there placed his arms, his shield and his god In Procopius, the sixth century Greek historian, we find a curious detail about Slavonic religion; it probably refers to Pyerun and permits us to place his position among the other gods. 'He is the god who wields the thunderbolt and they, the Slavs, recognise him as the sole lord of the universe.' This warlike mythology in which foreign elements were mingled -for we must not forget that the 'principality' of Kiev had been founded by Varyags, or Scandinavian warriors - was not without its influence on the rustic mythology from which originally it profoundly differed. As an example of this influence the god Volos or Vyelyes may be cited. Volos, 'god of cattle', who was of rustic origin and character, was afterwards associated with Pyerun's warlike exploits. The monk Nestor, author of the celebrated Chronicle, relates how the warriors of the Princess Olga 'swore by their arms and invoked their god Pyerun and Volos, god of the beasts'. In a treaty concluded between the Greeks, and Prince Svyatoslav, the prince and his fighting men declared: 'Let us be bound by our oath before the god in whom we believe - Pyerun - and before Volos, god of the beasts.' Another no less curious example is the transformation undergone by the image of the Zorya (Aurora) whom we have already mentioned. As long as she remained beside the Sun, god of light, she was only a simple guardian of the gates of his golden palace. But when she was found with Pyerun, god of war, the gentle Zorya assumed the aspect of a well-armed virgin warrior, patroness of warriors whom she protected with her long veil. When asking for her protection one repeated an exorcism which was still used in the nineteenth century: 'Unsheath, O Virgin, the sacred sword of thy father, take up the breastplate of thy ancestors, thy doughty helmet, bring out thy black horse. Fly to the open field. In the open field there is a mighty host with numberless weapons. Cover me, O Virgin, with thy veil and protect me against the power of the enemy, against blunderbuss and arrow, against all adversaries and all arms, against weapons of wood, of bone, of iron, of steel, of copper.' [...]... festival of the pagan god Kupala became in many Slav countries that of Ivan-Kupala This extraordinary association of the mythical name of a pagan divinity with that of a great Christian saint is a perfect example of the naive and simple manner in which paganism survived into Christian times, and of how the two religions managed to co-exist among the masses of the Slavonic world FINNO-UGRIC MYTHOLOGY INTRODUCTION. .. of folklore rather than to mythology The Myth Myths in the strict sense of the word are rather rare The Kalevala has preserved a few, such as the myth of the origin of the serpent, that of the origin of iron and of the origin of fire Fire came from a spark which Ukko made when he struck his flaming sword against his fingernail He confided the spark to one of the virgins of the air But she negligently... memory of this belief in a cosmogonic rite The bull of Mithraism was another residue of it The death of Gosh and of Gayomart was the work of Ahriman The seed of Gayomart was buried for forty yeais in the earth, and from it was born the first human couple: Mashya and Mashyoi Ormazd said to them: 'You are human beings, masters of the world In the perfection of thought I have created you the first of creatures... Finnish poem brings before our eyes the picture of a mystic and sacred festival in which are united the forces of nature, beasts, men and eods MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT PERSIA RELIGION OF THE ZEND-AVESTA THE HISTORICAL AND RELIGIOUS SETTING The Iranians are an offshoot of that branch of the Indo-European race which is known as Aryan ('noble') Iran, or Eran, is the land of the Aryans, who without doubt came from... flow.' The Underworld of the Kalevala The idea of the afterworld as a place of punishment is not found in Finno-Ugric mythology In the Kalevala the infernal region, or rather the kingdom of the dead, has the appearance of a land darker than other lands, though in it the sun shines and forests grow The entrance to Tuonela, the land of Tuoni, or to Manala, the land of Mana - names of the Finnish underworld... Magyars became one of the chief ramparts of Catholicism; the Finns of Finland and the Esthonians a bulwark of the Lutheran church The Finno-Ugrians of Russia were largely converted to Orthodoxy with a minority who embraced Islam - though both long kept survivals of their ancient pagan beliefs, survivals which were particularly strong among the Finno-Ugrians of Asia With the aid of such survivals and... fortunate possessor of the 'tear-weed', picked on Kupala's Day, had to be recited inside a church before the icons Similar examples are countless It is characteristic that the date of the festival of Kupala, preserved with the majority of its pagan details, was after the introduction of Christianity altered to the twenty-first of June, the summer solstice, not far from the feast of Saint John the Baptist... Mithra-Ahura of the Zend-Avesta corresponds to the duality Mitra-Varuna of the Vedas According to one authority the Mithra of Mithraism was a divinity who formed a link between the Ahura Mazda and the Angra Mainyu of Zoroaster; for it is time, marked by the revolutions of the sun, which regulates the alternation of light and darkness Hellenistic sculpture has popularised the scene of the immolation of a bull... to the degree of initiation, was necessary in order that the conflict of the universal dualism should, in the individual, end in the final victory of the luminous principle Exploration in the neighbourhood of Turfan and the discovery of a medieval library in the grottoes of Tunhwang have brought Manichaean texts to light Knowledge of the sect is also accessible through the refutations of its detractors,... bhakti - or love composed of devotion, surrender and confidence Haurvatat is fullness and achievement - the Indian Paramita a term of health Ameretat is the letter, amritatvam, non-mortality thanks to the beverage of life, an ancient Aryan idea Each of these serene figures reigned over a particular order of reality, such as a part of the year or of the week, or a category of beings Vohu-mano presided . god, god of light and day, and a black god, god of the shadows and of night: a god of good and a god of evil, opposed one to the other. The volkhvy, half priests, half sorcerers, of the pagan. hero of a Ukrainian song-legend speaks to 'little Sun: God, help me, man!' The Sun-god Dazhbog, great divinity of day and the light of day, conqueror of the shadows, of cold and of. also spoke of a Wind-god named Varpulis who formed part of the retinue of the god Perun and caused the noise of the storm. Erisvorsh was the god of the holy tempest. But the sound of these last