Glossary of linguistic terms in which medial r before a consonant other than r [pearl, sort) or r in final position {after) is not pronounced. non-stative a See stative. noun possessor A noun signifying the possessor of something material (e.g. the rich) or of some quality (e.g. the brave). noun possessum A noun signifying what is possessed by a noun possessor. off-glide An articulatory movement which occurs as the vocal organs leave the position needed for one speech sound and move towards the position required for the next sound or towards a position of rest. on-glide An articulatory movement which occurs as the vocal organs approach the position for the articulation of a speech sound either from the position of a sound just produced or from a position of rest. orthoepist One of a number of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century scholars whose aim was to describe a 'correct' pronunciation of English, and to reform the spelling system to make it reflect such a pronunciation more accurately. palaeotype The name of a system of writing devised by the nineteenth- century scholar A. J. Ellis in which existing Roman letters and other characters were used to form a universal phonetic alphabet. palatal A consonant articulated with the tongue touching or approaching the hard palate. palatalisation Articulation of a consonant resulting from the raising of the tongue towards the hard palate as in the initial sound of dew /dju:/ as opposed to do /du:/. palatalised a. pronounced with some degree of palatalisation. paragogic a. Of a vowel: required at the end of a word by a language's phonotactic rules, e.g. the final -o in Srinan Creole mofo from English mouth. particle A minor part of speech, esp. one that is short and indeclinable, a relation-word, e.g. to before an infinitive; also the subordinate unit(s) in a phrasal verb {up and with in meet up with). Not is often called a negative particle. patronymic A name derived from the name of a father or ancestor, e.g. Johnson, O'Brien, MacDonald. The Welsh markers ap (male) and ach (female) illustrate the same phenomenon {Dafyddap Llywelin, Elizabeth ach Morgan). periphrastic a. (In grammar specifically) of or relating to uses of the auxiliary verb do with a finite verb, as in did go instead of went. Also, more generally of a phrase (e.g. of the people) used instead of the normal inflected form {the people's). 563 Glossary of linguistic terms phatic a. (Of greetings, etc.) used to establish a social contact or as a formulaic farewell rather than to convey a specific message, e.g. How do you do!, Nice day, isn't it? (SAfr) Go well\ phonaesthetic a. Of or relating to the association of a particular group of sounds with a particular meaning, as si- suggesting ' unpleasantness ' in sleazy, slime, slum, etc. phoneme Any of the units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, as the initial /b/, /k/, /d/, /f/ of bad, cad, Dad, fad. Hence phonemic a. Cf. allophone. phonotactic a. Of or relating to the permissible sequences of phonemes in a given language, e.g. the presence of a homorganic d in PDE thunder (OE dunor) but not in Scots; and the absence of initial /rj/ in Present-Day English but its presence in Maori (e.g. ngaio name of a tree, pronounced /'naiau/ in New Zealand English but /rjaio/ in Maori). pidgin A contact language used between groups which have no language in common, especially a simplified variety of one group's language which has become somewhat stabilised for a special purpose such as trade. A pidgin is not the first language of any of its speakers; contrast Creole, pidginisation the process by which such a contact language emerges. polysemy The existence of many meanings (of a given word, phrase, etc.); e.g. balloon 'inflatable decorative rubber pouch; an aerial vehicle capable of carrying passengers, meteorological equipment, etc.; a large globular brandy glass'. Cf. homonym. pre-nasalised stop A stop consonant preceded by a homorganic nasal, e.g. /mb/, /nd/, /r)k/ functioning as a single phoneme: characteristic of many African languages and Atlantic Creoles. pre-verbal a. (Of a tense or aspect marker) placed in front of the stem of a verb. proclitic A word pronounced with so little emphasis that it becomes merged with the stressed word that follows it, e.g. in some forms of regional British English down to the first half of the nineteenth century, chill from ich T + will. progressive aspect A verb marker indicating that an action is in progress, e.g. Jamaican Creole im de sing 'he is singing'. pronoun exchange A characteristic feature of some west midland south- west dialects in England in which standard English subject and object pronouns appear in reverse use, e.g. the type Her told I' She told me'. propredicate A word-sequence echoing a statement just made while 564 Glossary of linguistic terms repeating only part of it, e.g. ' They got married on Friday.'' Did they}' (= 'Did they get married on Friday?'). prosody A term used in phonetics to refer collectively to variations in pitch, stress (loudness), tempo and rhythm. (These features are also called suprasegmentals.) prosodic a. pseudo-cleft sentence One which, like the cleft sentence, makes explicit the division between given and new parts of a statement. The pseudo-cleft equivalent of You need a good rest most is What you need most is a good rest. quantifier A word indicating quantity that is used to modify another word or words, e.g. numbers {one, two, etc.), or words like all, every, few, some and several. r-coloured a. See retroflexion. r-dropping The absence of rhoticity in the pronunciation of words containing medial pre-consonantal <r> {bom, heart) or final <r> {after, sever). Received Standard See RP. reduplication The repetition of some part of the root of a word, esp. in the case of verbal forms (chiefly the perfect tense) in Greek and Latin, e.g. Xvw 'unfasten', (perfect) XeXvKa 'I have unfastened'; cado 'I fall', (perfect) cecidi'I have fallen'; also, as shown in the English types helter-skelter, mumbo-jumbo. referent The idea or thing that a word symbolises. Thus the object describable as 'the natural satellite of the earth, illuminated by the sun and reflecting some light to the earth' is the referent of English moon. reflex An item in the sound system of a language which is directly related, by regular phonological change, to a specific item in the language at an earlier stage of its history. relexification A language's one-for-one exchange of words while retaining much of its original structure; the proposed explanation for the trans- formation of pidgin Portuguese into pidgin English, French etc. in seventeenth-century West Africa, relexify v. retroflexion The articulation of a speech sound with the tip of the tongue curling towards the hard palate, esp. that occurring in words containing <r> {bird, earth, etc.): a marked feature of American English. In such cir- cumstances the vowel preceding a retroflex <(r) is said to be r-coloured or rhotacised. rhotic a. Of or relating to a form of English, esp. Modern Scots and American English, that retains historical /r/ in most circumstances {river, Arthur, far from, etc.). The state or condition of being rhotic is rhoticity or rhotacism. RP is notable for its non-rhoticity. 565 Glossary of linguistic terms rounding A term used in phonetics in the classification of lip position: the lips are said to be rounded for the pronunciation of certain speech sounds (e.g. regional English /u/ in some), and unrounded for others (e.g. /A/ in RP some). RP Received Pronunciation (also called Received Standard), the form of spoken English based on educated speech in southern England. schwa The name of the indistinct vowel sound /a/, often found in unstressed syllables in English, as in another / serial verb In a variety of African, South Asian and East Asian languages and Atlantic Creoles, a construction consisting of a series of verbs with the same subject and no intervening conjunctions or complementisers, e.g. Jamaican CE Mironguo lefim (lit. 'I run go leave him'), 'I ran away from him'. sociolect A linguistic variety or lect of a language defined on social, as opposed to regional, grounds; a social dialect. sociolinguistic a. Relating to or concerned with language in its social aspects. spelling pronunciation The pronunciation of a word according to its written form, e.g. pronouncing/or^Was /'fo:,hed/ instead of /'fDrid/. stative a. Applied to verbs which express a state or condition, e.g. be, know, mean, etc., as opposed to dynamic or non-stative verbs, e.g. change,grow, run (I am running), etc. stress-timed a. Designating a language, e.g. English, in which primary stresses occur at approximately equal intervals, irrespective of the number of unstressed syllables in between. Opposed to syllable-timed a. substratum (or substrate language) A linguistic variety or set of forms which has influenced the structure or use of a more dominant variety or language within a community; specif., in the language contact leading to a pidgin or Creole, the language(s) spoken by the group(s) with less power. Contrast superstrate (language). superstrate (language) (Applied to) a linguistic variety or set of forms which has influenced the structure or use of a less dominant variety or language within a community; specif., in the language contact leading to a pidgin or Creole, the language spoken by the group with more power, which becomes the source of the new language's lexicon. Contrast substrate (language). suprasegmentals In phonology, a term used to describe phonetic features of a sound or sequence of sounds other than those constituting the consonantal and vocalic segments, esp. stress, pitch and intonation. See prosody. 566 Glossary of linguistic terms suspended (/ v ) A. J. Ellis' term for a reduced form of the definite article used in some (esp. northern) English dialects, often a glottalised /t/ or a glottal stop. syllable-timed a. Designating a language, e.g. French, in which the syllables occur at roughly regular time intervals. Opposed to stress-timed a. synchronic a. Designating a method of linguistic study concerned with the state of a language at one time, past or present, as opposed to an historical or diachronic method. tag question A short interrogative formula placed at the end of a declarative statement, e.g. aren't you? in You are going to London tomorrow, aren't you? Sometimes in abbreviated form as tag. tap The name given to a speech sound produced by a single momentary contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. In many words a Maori tapped /r/ is rendered in New Zealand English as /d/, e.g. Maori piripiri -*• NZE biddy-biddy. tense A verbal category indicating the time of an action, e.g. walks (present) vs walked (past). /-glottaling The replacement of /t/ by a glottalised /ora glottal stop. Thurstone tests Tests devised by Louis Leon Thurstone (1887-1955) for the measurement of mental abilities and attitudes. topic The part of a sentence (often the subject) which is marked as that on which the rest of the sentence makes a comment, asks a question, etc. topicalisation The process by which an element or elements in a sentence are given prominence, making it or them the 'topic' on which a 'comment' is made. unrounded, unrounding See rounding. vocalisation See /-vocalisation. vowel harmony A phonological pattern in some languages in which all the vowels in a word share certain features, e.g. Suriname Creole ala 'all', bigi 'big', brudu'blood'. yod The semi-vowel sound /j/ as inyes /jes/. yod-dropping The absence of yod /j/ after certain consonants in the pronunciation of such words as assume, new and enthusiasm as /a'suim/, /nu:/, /m'6u:zi,£ez(3)m/ instead of/a'sjuim/, etc. yod-formation In some northern English dialects, the prefixing of an unetymological yod in words likeyance 'once',yane 'one'. y-tensing The pronunciation of the final syllable of words like coffee and jolly as I'v.j instead of as RP /i/. 567 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Introduction Burchfield, R. 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