Literary language Hemingway, Ernest, 1898-1961 Herbert, George, 1593-1633 Hill, Geoffrey, 1932- Hill, Susan, 1942- Hoban, Russell, 1925- Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 1844-89 Housman, Alfred) E(dward), 1859-1936 Hughes, Langston, 1902-67 Hughes, Ted, 1930- Isherwood, Christopher, 1904-86 James, Henry, 1843-1916 Johnson, Linton Kwesi, 1952- Johnson, Samuel, 1709-84 Jones, David, 1895-1974 Joyce, James, 1882-1941 Keats, John, 1795-1821 Kerouac, Jack, 1922-69 Kingsley, Charles, 1819-75 Kipling, Rudyard, 1865-1936 Larkin, Philip, 1922-85 Lawrence, D(avid) H(erbert), 1885-1930 Lear, Edward, 1812-88 Lindsay, Vachel, 1879-1931 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 1807-82 Lowell, Robert, 1917-77 Lowry, Malcolm, 1909-57 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord, 1800-59 MacDiarmid, Hugh (C. M. Grieve), 1892-1978 Mackenzie, Henry, 1745-1831 Macpherson, James, 1736-96 Mailer, Norman, 1923- Miltonjohn, 1608-74 Moore, Marianne, 1887-1972 Morris, William, 1834-96 Nesbit, Edith, 1858-1924 O'Hara, Frank, 1926-66 Olson, Charles, 1910-70 Orwell, George (E. A. Blair), 1903-50 Owen, Wilfred, 1893-1918 Pope, Alexander, 1688-1744 Pound, Ezra, 1885-1972 RadclifFe, Ann, 1764-1823 Rossetti, Christina, 1830-94 691 Sylvia Adamson Ruskin, John, 1819-1900 Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 Shaw, George Bernard, 1856-1950 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1792-1822 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751-1816 Smith, Stevie, 1902-71 Southey, Robert, 1774-1843 Spenser, Edmund, c. 1552-99 Swinburne, Algernon, 1837-1909 Synge, J(ohn) M(illington), 1871-1909 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 1809-92 Thackeray, William Makepeace, 1811-63 Thomas, Dylan, 1914-53 Thomas, Edward, 1878-1917 Thomson, James, 1700-48 Tomlinson, Charles, 1927- Trollope, Anthony, 1815-82 Tupper, Martin, 1810-89 Twain, Mark (S. L Clemens), 1835-1910 Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 Waugh, Evelyn, 1903-66 Wells, H(erbert) G(eorge), 1866-1946 Wesker, Arnold, 1932- Whitman, Walt, 1819-92 Wilbur, Richard, 1921- Wilde, Oscar, 1854-1900 Williams, William Carlos, 1883-1963 Wolfe, Tom, 1930- Woolf, Virginia, 1882-1941 Wordsworth, William, 1770-1850 Young, Edward, 1683-1765 692 GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS For fuller definitions of linguistic terms, see D. Crystal's A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 3rd rev. edn. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991) or P. Matthews's A Concise Dictionary of Linguistics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); for stylistic terms see K. Wales's A Dictionary of Statistics (London: Longman, 1990). abbreviation A short form of a word or other expression; specifically, a short written form representing the pronunciation of the full form; the process of so shortening a form. ablaut reduplication See consonantal reduplication. abstraction A change in the reference of a word from something more material or specific to something less material or more general (cf. concretion). accentual metre A verse-design prescribing a stress-pattern rather than a sylla- ble-count. acronym A written short form of a word or other expression pronounced according to the normal rules of spelling. acronomy The process of forming acronyms. adaptation The process of forming a loanword with relatively greater changes from its foreign etymon (cf. adoption). adjunct An optional modifier, most often an adverbial or adverbial clause. adoption The process of forming a loanword with only minimal changes from its foreign etymon (cf. adaptation). adverbial One of the chief functional elements of clauses, along with subject and object, predicative complement, and predicator (verbal group), and most often filled by the categories adverb phrase, prepositional phrase or clause. affective adjectives A sub-class of adjectives specifying the attitude of the speaker rather than an attribute of the NP's referent, e.g. a nice book; a hideous idea. 693 Glossary of linguistic terms affix A bound morpheme that generally is used only in combination with a base morpheme. affixing or affixation The formation of a composite word by the use of an affix. agentive A semantic role that involves instigation and volition; an agentive NP is the doer of an action. alexandrine The standard verse-line of French neo-classical poetry. The term was borrowed into English to refer to the iambic hexameter. alien word A foreign word. alliterative metre An accentual metre in which the verse-design also prescribes that some of the stressed syllables alliterate (i.e. have the same initial consonant). alphabetism A written short form of a word or other expression pronounced by the names of the letters with which it is written. amelioration A change in the reference of a word to a referent more highly regarde d than its older referent (cf. pejoration). anaphoric Referring back to some constituent already mentioned (the ante- cedent). aphesis The omission of an initial unstressed syllable from an expression. apodosis The consequent (main) clause of a conditional construction; the sub- ordinat e or /^clause is the protasis. apposition Adjacency of two constituents with the same function and reference an d without any overt linking element. appositive In apposition. argument A constituent which plays a part in the semantic structure of a verb - subject, object, etc. - usually obligatory, and possibly subject to selectional restric- tions imposed by the verb. Thus in The Pope kissed the ground on his arrival, the NPs the Pope and the ground are arguments of kiss, while his arrival is not. assimilation The change of a sound by becoming identical with or more like a neighbouring sound. attributive Modifying a head noun within NP, and contrasted with predicative. backformation The shortening of a word by omitting an affix or what is taken t o be an affix. bahuvrihi compound An exocentric compound (from Sanskrit '[having] much rice'). 694 Glossary of linguistic terms ballad metre A four-line stanza composed of alternating foiu>beat and three- beat lines with a rhyming pattern abab or abcb. Also known as common metre. base morpheme A free morpheme or a bound morpheme to which affixes can be added to form words. bestowal The conscious act of name-giving, as opposed to the evolution of a referrin g expression into a name. blank verse Verse written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. blend A word formed by combining etyma while omitting part of at least one of its etyma. borrowing A loanword; the process of forming loanwords. bound morpheme A morpheme that cannot be used alone as a word, but must be combined with another. caique A form of borrowing in which a word or phrase from one language is translated part-by-part into another, e.g. Eng. skyscraper (Sp. rascacie/os, Ger. Wolkenkrat^er). Also known as loan translation. catenative A lexical (nonauxiliary) verb with another verb in its complement. chiasmus A pattern in which elements are repeated in the reverse order, e.g. /xx/; abba; John kissed Mary, Mary kissed John. clang association A change in reference by which one word acquires the refer- ent of another word to which it is similar in sound. clipping The shortening of a spoken or written form, specifically without phonological motive. clitic A form which is syntactically equivalent to a word but which is phonologi- cally attached to a neighbouring word. collocate Habitually co-occur, not necessarily with any syntactic relation, commutation Intersubstitutability. commute Can be substituted one for another, complementary See distribution. complementiser A constituent which acts as introducer of an embedded clause an d whose content, when lexically filled, is roughly equivalent to a subordinating conjunction in traditional terminology. composing The process of forming a composite word, specifically either com- pounding or affixing. composite word A word formed by combining etyma. 695 Glossary of linguistic terms compound A word formed from two or more base morphemes, compounding The formation of compounds. concord The formal relationship between units whereby the form of one word requires a corresponding form in another, specifically the present-tense verbal ending -(e)s in agreement with a 3 SG subject. concrete poetry Used from the 1950s to refer to a type of poetry in which visual appearance makes an essential contribution to the meaning. concretion A change in the reference of a word from something less material or specific to something more material or less general (cf. abstraction). conjunct An adverbial which links a clause to the preceding context, e.g. further- more, nonetheless. consonantal reduplication A reduplication of consonants with variation of the stressed vowel, such as fiddle-faddle. contrastive See distribution. conversion The process of making a shift in part of speech; a word so shifted. co-ordination The process or product of linking linguistic units of equal status, usually by means of a co-ordinating conjunction and, but, or. copula A linking verb, typically a verb of being, e.g. This is a glossary. copulative compound A compound that combines two words, either of which might be used alone in the same construction as the compound, such as secretary- treasurer. counterfactual Hypothetical and already ruled out by the known course of events, as in the conditional sentence If Cambridge had been bombed flat in the War, it wouldn't be such a big tourist attraction. creation A word not based on other words, that is, with no etyma. dactyl A metrical foot of three syllables patterned long-short-short or (as is more commonly the case in English metres) stress-unstress-unstress e.g. HAPPily; CALL to me. deictic Of an item reflecting the orientation of discourse participants in time and space, normally with reference to the speaker, deixis, along a proximal (towards- speaker) versus distal (away-from-speaker) axis, e.g. I.you; thisithat, presentrpast. derivation The history of a word; or the pattern or structure of a word; or the stud y of either of those. determiner The cover term for articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that) and quantifiers (few, three). 696 Glossary of linguistic terms diachronic Historical. disjunct An adverbial which conveys the speaker's comment on the rest of the sentence , e.g. initial Frankly or Understandably. distal See deictic. distribution There are two important types of distribution: (a) complementary distribution, where the environment in which the two elements may occur con- sists of two disjoint sets, each associated with only one element; and (b) contras- tive distribution, where the environment consists of two overlapping sets. do-support The introduction of do as a 'dummy' auxiliary, e.g. in the interroga- tive and negative sentences in the following pairs: They often go to Paris/Do they often go to Paris?\ We received your parcel/We did not receive your parcel. durative Use of verbs or clauses describing events that involve a period of time, dvandva compound A copulative compound (from Sanskrit 'two-two'), echoic word A word whose sound suggests its referent. elision A spoken short form of a word or other expression resulting from the omission of some sounds for phonological reasons; specifically by aphesis, syncope, or assimilation. ellipsis The omission of one or more words from an expression, as the short- ening of a compound noun to one of its components. embedded Used of a clause syntactically subordinate to some other clause and therefore included within it. empathetic deixis The re-centring of deixis on an entity or person other than the speaker. See Lyons 1977: 677. empathetic narrative A narrative style in which forms of empathetic deixis are systematically employed. enclitic A clitic which follows its host. endocentric compound A compound, one of whose elements is logically sub- stitutable for the whole compound, such as redbird = a bird (cf. exocentric com- pound). enjamb(e)ment In poetry, the continuation of a syntactic unit across the metri- cal boundary created by a line-end. environment The linguistic context relevant to the use or selection of some form . epic preterite A translation of Episches Praeteritum, the term used for the was-now paradox by Hamburger (1973). 697 Glossary of linguistic terms epistemic A term referring to the semantics of probability, possibility and belief, as in They must be married in the sense (From what is known to me) I conclude that they are married. etymology The history of a word; the study of word histories. etymon (plural, etyma) A vocabulary element that is the source of another word. exocentric compound A compound neither of whose elements is logically sub- stitutable for the whole compound, such as pickpocket ^ a pocket, but rather someone who picks pockets (cf. endocentric compound). extraction A linguistic process which relates a constituent outside a clause to an apparent gap inside it, as where who in Who didyou want me to invite [tj>]? corresponds to the missing object of invite (and in a transformational generative grammar is analysed as having been moved from that site). eye-dialect The representation of non-standard speech by non-standard spellings which do not indicate a genuine difference in pronunciation e.g. <wimmin> for women. eye-rhyme A rhyme based on similarity of spelling not sound e.g. plaid/paid, sword/word. The deliberate use of eye-rhyme is a feature of post eighteenth-century poetry; apparent instances in earlier poetry are usually the result of an intervening sound-change. folk etymology A process of word formation that involves reinterpreting the structure of a word or the identity of its parts, often with a consequent change in the word's shape, as bridegroom 'bride's man' was reinterpreted and remodelled as bride + groom. foot A unit of rhythm normally consisting of a stressed syllable and its satellite(s). foreign word A loanword by adoption that is markedly foreign in appearance or use. formation word derivation. fourteener A poetic line of fourteen syllables in iambic metre. free indirect style An anglicisation of style indirect libre the term introduced by Bally (1912), originally to refer to a style of speech-reporting which combines fea- tures of direct speech (not subordinated to a reporting clause) and indirect speech (back-shifted tense). Sometimes used of empathetic narrative more generally. free modifier A modifying element structurally detached from its head, free morpheme A morpheme that is capable of being used alone as a word. 698 Glossary of linguistic terms free verse An anglicisation of vers libre, used especially in the early twentieth century to refer to experimental poetry not conforming to traditional metrical patterns. generalisation An increase in the number of sorts of things a word refers to (cf. specialisation). generic A common noun, as opposed to a trade name or proprietary name. grammaticalisation The process whereby a device developed for stylistic or topicalisatio n purposes or an element of full referential meaning comes to be employed as the regular grammatical exponent of a particular category. In English the change in use of the progressive form of verbs from a stylistic device to an expression of duration is an example of grammaticalisation. Great Vowel Shift A series of sound changes in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies affecting nearly all the long vowels in Standard English: fully described in volume II. h-dropping The absence of /h/ in the pronunciation of words like ^/(rendered as /aet/) in some regional forms of English. half-rhyme An umbrella term for various kinds of matched sound-sequences whic h relax the criteria for full-rhyme (identity in the last stressed vowel and all succeeding sounds). Also known as off-rhyme or para-rhyme. head The central or essential element in a larger unit, e.g. man in the large man. heroic couplet A pair of rhymed iambic pentameter lines. hexameter A verse line consisting of six metrical feet. The standard metre of epic in Latin poetry, where it is composed of dactyls and spondees in prescribed combination. Imitated by English writers with various degrees of adaptation, e.g. substituting stress for length in realisations of the foot and trochee for spondee in realisations of the line. higher clause, verb The highest clause of a sentence is the independent or main clause, and lower or subordinate clauses are embedded within a higher clause. Thus in Max knew him to be a fraud, the higher clause is the one whose verb is knew, the lower clause is him to be a fraud, with verb be. hybrid compound A compound whose parts originally derive from different languages. hyperbole A change in reference caused by exaggeration (cf. litotes). hypercorrection The term used to refer to the production of anomalous forms throug h the faulty imitation of prestige norms and their extension to inappropri- ate environments. For example, the dropping of initial /h/ in many dialects leads some speakers to add it to words which do not have it etymologically, as in hable 'able', Hamsterdam Amsterdam'. 699 Glossary of linguistic terms hypotaxis A term used by late nineteenth-century grammarians (in contrast to parataxis) to refer to forms of clause-combining that involve dependency; some- times used more specifically to refer to the presence of subordinating conjunctions such as if, when, so that, e.g. he left when I arrived. iamb A metrical foot, consisting of a short syllable followed by a long syllable or (as is more commonly the case in English metres) an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, e.g. beGlN; to DRINK; the GIN. iambic hexameter In English prosody, a line based on the pattern of six iambs. More commonly known as alexandrine. iambic pentameter In English prosody, a line based on the pattern of five iambs. The standard metre for blank verse and heroic couplets, it is the func- tional equivalent of the French alexandrine or the classical hexameter. iconicity A formal resemblance between some aspect of a linguistic expression and the object or event which it denotes or refers to, e.g. moo resembles its deno- tatum in sound; I came, I saw, I conquered matches clause-order to the chronological order of the actions described. innovative borrowing The process of joining words imitated from another lan- guage into a combination that does not occur in that language. ISV International Scientific Vocabulary, words formed in recent times and found in slightly varying forms in several languages, whose exact history is difficult or impossible to reconstruct. lexeme The minimal distinctive unit in the lexical system and the abstract unit underlying a set of grammatical variants; hence close to popular notions of a word. The forms sing, sings, sang, and singing all belong to the lexeme sing, and the forms rose tree, beech tree, tree diagram are lexical units which are related through the lexeme tree. The head words in a dictionary are usually lexemes. lexical-incidental Referring to the occurrence (or incidence) of a particular phoneme in a particular word (hence lexical). For example, ECONOMICS may be pronounced with either /i?/ or /8/ as its first phoneme; individual speakers vary in their choice. Elsewhere in the vocabulary, no such choice exists: e.g. EKE and ECHO must be pronounced with /i?/ and /8/ respectively as their first phoneme. lexicalised Of an element or construction which has acquired the status of a lexeme. lexicography The recording of vocabulary in a dictionary, or the study of such recording. lexicology The study of vocabulary in any of its aspects. 700 [...]... Blake (ed.) The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol II, 106 6- 147 6 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 207 -40 8 (19 94) The development of quasi-auxiliaries in English and changes in word order NeophilologuslS: 137- 64 Fisiak, J (ed.) (19 84) Historical Syntax (Trends in Linguistics/Studies and Monographs 23.) Paris and The Hague: Mouton Foster, B (1970) The Changing English Language Harmondsworth:... transferred epithet and the was-now paradox both violate normal selectional restrictions semantic Pertaining to the meaning of words and morphemes semantic loan The use of the meaning of a word in another language for an English word of similar form or other uses shift A word derived from another word by changing its part of speech, its sense, the order of its sounds, or its range of use; the process of forming... 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Bergen: Department of English, University of Bergen 2nd edn (1990) Oslo: Novus Brinton, L J (1988) The Development of English Aspectual Systems: Aspectuali^ers and Post-verbal Particles (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 49 .) Cambridge University Press (19 94) The differentiation of statives and perfects in early Modern English: the development of the conclusive perfect In Stein... Charleston, B M (1 941 ) Studies on the Syntax of the English Verb (Schweizer Anglistische Arbeiten [11].) Bern: Francke Cheshire, J (1982) Variation in an English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Study Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Christophersen, P (1939) The Articles: A Study of their Theory and Use in English Copenhagen: Munksgaard Clark, J W (1975) The Language and Style of Anthony Trollope (The Language. .. Burchfield, R W (1989) The English Language Oxford: Oxford University Press, (ed.) (19 94) English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol V Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cameron, D & J Bourne (1988) No common ground: Kingman, Grammar and the Nation Language and Education 2: 147 —60 Chambers, J K 1992 Dialect acquisition Language 68: 673—705... (1989) Selling English by the pound The Times October 24: 14 Greenbaum, S (1990) Whose English? In Ricks, C & L Michaels (eds.), The State of the Language Berkeley: University of California Press, 15-23 Grillo, R D (1989) Dominant Languages Language and Hierarchy in Britain and France Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Harris, J (19 84) Syntactic variation and dialect divergence Journal of Linguistics... 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A history of the English relative constructions Journal of English and Germanic Philology 1 1 : 1 0 - 2 9 , 1 8 0 - 2 0 4 , 355-80 Curry, K (19 84) The Contributions of Robert Southey to the 'Morning Post' Alabama: University of Alabama Press Davies, E (1986) The English Imperative London: Croom Helm Dekeyser, X (1975) Number and Case Relations in 19th century British English: a Comparative Study of . to the meaning of words and morphemes. semantic loan The use of the meaning of a word in another language for an English word of similar form or other uses. shift A word derived from another. (1989). The English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, (ed.) (19 94) . English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. The Cambridge History of the English Language, . InternationalJournal of Lexicography 1: 1-31. (ed.) (forthcoming). English in North America: origins and development. The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol. VI. Cambridge: Cambridge