STOPS 403 > The Comma with Adverbials An adverbial is any word or construction used as an adverb. Adverbials are more flexible in their positioning than adjec- tivals, modify more kinds of words, and convey a wider range of meanings. Consequently their punctuation is especially variable. In the discussion that follows, advice about using commas with adverbials must be understood as loose gener- alizations, which skillful writers frequently ignore or adapt to their particular need to be emphatic or clear or rhythmic. Single-Word Adverbs When simple adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other ad- verbs, they are not usually punctuated (italics are added in the following examples): He wept quietly. The people were extremely happy. Everyone was very deeply concerned. Sentence adverbs (those that modify an entire clause rather than any single word) are more frequently punctuated. In composition, sentence adverbs often take the form of con- nectives, qualifiers, and what may be called "attitudinals" (words like fortunately or unhappily that express a writer's attitude toward the statement he or she is making). Mostly such words are punctuated, whether in the opening, inter- rupting, or closing position (italics added): Further, Hamlet's world is a world of riddles. Maynard Mack Unhappily, the gibe has point. Brand Blanshard In spite of all these dissimilarities, however, the points of resem- blance were quite as profound. Bertrand Russell But, luckily, even at the dreariest moments of our pilgrimage there were compensations. Aidous Huxley I missed that class, fortunately. student 404 PUNCTUATION There is, however, considerable variation in punctuating such sentence adverbs. Some (however, for example) are al- ways punctuated. With others (therefore, luckily, fortunately) the comma(s)—while probably more often used than not— may be omitted if the writer does not like the pause and feels that clarity does not require it. When the coordinating conjunctions and, but, for, or are used to introduce a sentence, they are not punctuated, even though they are acting, for all intents and purposes, as con- junctive adverbs: But we stayed. NOT But, we stayed. Adverbial Prepositional Phrases In the first position, when they open a sentence, adverbial prepositional phrases may or may not be punctuated. Much depends on the conventions regarding specific phrases, on the writer's own preference, and on the need for clarity or em- phasis. Some idiomatic phrases are usually followed by com- mas; this is especially the case with those acting as sentence adverbs signaling logical relationship or attitude (for example, on the other hand, of course): For example, in 1913 there was produced in Great Britain seven billion yards of cotton cloth for export alone. Carl Becker Less formulaic phrases are often punctuated or not, ac- cording to the writer's sense of rhythm: In a crude way, Mickey Spillane is something of an innovator. Charles J. Rolo Of Pushkin's shorter stories The Queen of Spades is perhaps the most entertaining. Rosemary Edmonds However, if there is any chance that an initial phrase may be misconnected, a comma should always be used. These two sentences, for instance, would be clearer with commas: STOPS 405 In writing these signals must be replaced by punctuation. In business machines are built to become obsolete within a few years. In each case the object of the preposition can be misread as grammatically tied to the following word, as if the writers were talking about "writing these signals" and "business machines." Within a sentence adverbial phrases are punctuated with great variability. What the phrase modifies, where it is placed, what rhythm or emphasis the writer wants are all important. A key consideration is whether or not the phrase is felt as an interrupter—that is, as intruding into the normal grammatical flow of the sentence. If it is, set off the phrase by commas. Interrupting phrases often come between subject and verb: Jerusalem, of course, contains more than ghosts and architectural j monstrosities. Aldous Huxley 1 Barrett Wendell, in his admirable book on writing, points out that clearness and vividness often turn on mere specificity. Brand Blanshard But they may come elsewhere: And their former masters were, from the start, resolved to maintain the old difference. Oscar Handlin Coughlin's activities were clearly, after Pearl Harbor, intolerable. Wallace Stegner Newspapermen have always felt superstitious, among other things, about Lindbergh. John Lardner In such cases the writer is seeking clarity or emphasis. The option is not so much whether to punctuate the phrase as where to place it. Any of the phrases in the three examples above could be positioned, and more idiomatically, at the end 406 PUNCTUATION and would then probably not need commas. But placed where they are, they do require punctuation. At the close of a sentence or clause, adverbial phrases are not generally punctuated: The party adjourned to the kitchen Herbert Asbury He was quiet and in-dwelling from early boyhood on. John Lardner Final adverbial phrases may be isolated for emphasis, though the technique quickly loses value if overworked: They were not men of equal status, despite the professed demo- cratic procedure. Harry Hansen And why is this picture an absurdity—as it is, of course? George Orwell Adverbial Clauses In initial position, when they precede the main clause, adver- bial clauses are usually punctuated: If we figure out the answer, we feel devilishly smart; if we don't, we enjoy a juicy surprise. Charles j. Rolo When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. George Orwell A writer has the option of omitting the comma after a short initial adverbial clause if clarity will not suffer. (British writers seem to exercise that choice more often than do Americans): When he describes the past the historian has to recapture the rich- ness of the moments, . . . Herbert Butterfield However, the comma should never be left out if there is any possibility that readers will see an unintended grammatical connection between the last word of the adverbial clause and STOPS 407 the first word of the following construction. In the sentence below, for instance, a comma after "sail" would prevent read- ers from the misstep of thinking the writer is referring to "sail boats": When you are first learning to sail boats seem to be very cumber- some things. Adverbial clauses in an interrupting position are conven- tionally punctuated: The whole thing, as he himself recognized, was a clean sporting venture. P. C. Wodehouse On occasion, if no operations were scheduled for the next day, he would be up early and out on an all-day hunt after getting only one Or tWO hours of sleep. Ralph K. Andrist Adverbial clauses in the dosing position may or may not be punctuated. The primary considerations are clarity and rhythm. A comma generally helps readers follow the gram- mar, especially before clauses expressing a concession or qual- ification: The Supreme Court upheld the conviction, although the judges could not agree on any one opinion. Roger Fisher Now I seldom cuss, although at first I was quick to open fire at everything that tried my patience. Richard E. Byrd On the other hand, some writers prefer to omit the comma when the main and the adverbial clauses are both short and unpunctuated within themselves. The comma is often omitted before because if the pause might seem overly emphatic: Locke thought traditional theology worthless because it was not primarily concerned with truth. Paul Johnson 408 PUNCTUATION On one occasion, however, a following because-clzuse should be preceded by a comma. This is when it comes after a negative statement and is intended as a straightforward ex- planation of that statement: They did not elect him, because they distrusted him. Without the comma such a sentence may be read as an ironic assertion that "they did elect him and certainly did not dis- trust him." COMMA WITH ADVERBIALS I. Single-word adverbs A. Sentence adverbs: usually punctuated, whether in the initial, closing, or interrupting position However, the people left. The people, however, left. The people left, however. But there are exceptions Fortunatelyi,) the people left. The people therefore left. B. Adverbs modifying verbs and other modifiers: not punctu- ated unless they are in an unusual position, when a comma may be used for clarity or emphasis. The people slowly left. EMPHATIC {Slowly, the people left. The people left, slowly. II. Adverbial phrase A. Initial position: punctuation optional On the whole(,) the men were satisfied B. Closing position: not generally punctuated, though comma may be used for emphasis The men were satisfied on the whole. EMPHATIC The men were satisfied, on the whole. C. Interrupting position: punctuation conventionally required The men, on the whole, were satisfied. The men were, on the whole, satisfied III. Adverbial clause STOPS 409 A. Initial position: usually punctuated When the sun went down, the women left camp. OPTION WITH SHORT, CLEARLY RELATED CLAUSES When the sun went down the women left camp. B. Closing position: not usually punctuated, though a comma may be used for emphasis or clarity The women left camp when the sun went down. EMPHATIC The women left camp, when the sun went down. C. Interrupting position: conventionally punctuated The women, when the sun went down, left camp. t> Comma with the Main Elements of the Sentence The main elements of a sentence—the subject, verb, and ob- ject—are not separated by commas except under unusual con- ditions. Very occasionally when the subject is not a single word but a long construction, such as a noun clause, a comma may be put at its end to signal the verb (italics are added in the following examples): What makes the generation of the '60s different, is that it is largely inner-directed and uncontrolled by adult-doyens. Time magazine In such a sentence the comma between the subject and the verb may help readers to follow the grammar. Commas may also be used with the main elements in the case of inversion—that is, when the subject, verb, and object are arranged in something other than their usual order. Some- times the pattern is object, subject, verb; if the object is a long construction, a comma may be set between it and the subject: What he actually meant by it, I cannot imagine. Aldous Huxley The most frequent kind of inversion in composition occurs with the idiom "I think" ("I suppose," "I imagine," "I hope" are other variations): 4IO PUNCTUATION The lectures, / understand, are given and may even be taken. Stephen Leacock Lenin, on the contrary, might, / think, have seemed to me at once a narrow-minded fanatic and a cheap cynic. Bertrand Russell In this type of sentence the main subject/verb is the "I think," "I understand." The rest (which contains the key idea) is a contact clause acting as the direct object, telling us what is understood or thought. If the sentence were in straightfor- ward order, no comma would be necessary between the main elements: I understand the lectures are given I think Lenin might have seemed But when the "I understand" or "I think" is intruded within the noun clause, the subject/verb must be treated as an inter- rupting construction and set off by commas. f> Comma with Appositives An appositive is a word or construction which refers to the same thing as another and is (usually) set immediately after it. When appositives are restrictive, they are not punctuated: The argument that the corporations create new psychological needs in order to sell their wares is equally flimsy. Ellen Willis In that sentence the clause is in restrictive apposition to the subject "argument"; it specifies "argument," and the noun would be relatively meaningless without it. Notice that the clause is not set off by commas. (Sometimes, however, a comma is placed after such a clause—though not before—to mark its end and signal a new construction.) Often appositives are nonrestrictive. In that case they must be punctuated. Usually such appositives follow the noun and STOPS 411 should be preceded by a comma (and followed by one if they do not close the sentence): Poskitt, the d'Artagnan of the links, was a man who brought to the tee the tactics which in his youth had won him such fame as a hammer thrower. p. G. Wodehouse The newcomers were pagans, worshippers of Wotan and other Teu- tonic gods. Margaret Schlauch She was a splendid woman, this Mme. Guyon. w. H. Lewis Appositives occasionally open a clause or sentence, thus preceding the word to which they are in apposition. Then they must be followed by a comma, as in this example where a series of three appositives precedes the subject ("Bishop An- drewes"): A gifted preacher, a profound scholar, and a great and good man, Bishop Andrewes was one of the lights of the Church of England. G. P. V. Akrigg D> Comma with Absolutes An absolute is a construction that is included within a sen- tence but is not really a grammatical part of that sentence; it serves as a kind of loose clausal modifier. Nominative absolutes, the most common kind in compo- sition, may precede, follow, or be intruded into the main clause. In all cases they are punctuated (the absolutes are ital- icized in the following examples): The savings of the nation having been absorbed by Wall Street, the people were persuaded to borrow money on their farms, factories, homes, machinery, and every other tangible asset that they might earn high interest rates and take big profits out of the rise in the market. Irving Stone 412 PUNCTUATION The bluffs along the water's edge were streaked with black and red and yellow, their colors deepened by recent rains. John G. Neihardt The official, his white shirt clinging with sweat to his ribs, received me with a politeness clearly on the inner edge of neurosis. James Cameron Participial and infinitive absolutes are also punctuated: Allowing for hyperbole and halving the figure, that is still one hell Of a pile of pulp. Pauline Kael To revert for a moment to the story told in the first person, it is plain that in that case the narrator has no such liberty. . . . Percy Lubbock t> Comma with Suspended Constructions A suspended construction occurs when two or more units are hooked grammatically to the same thing. It is really a form of parallelism, but an unusual or emphatic form, which read- ers may find difficult. Hence such constructions are often (though not invariably) punctuated: Many people believed, and still do, that he was taking Nazi money to run his machine. Wallace Stegner Prescott and Parkman were willing, and Motley reluctant, to con- cede that the sixteenth-century Spaniard's desire to convert Amer- ican Indians had not been hypocritical. David Levin When the idiomatic phrase more or less is treated as a sus- pended construction, it always requires commas to distin- guish it from its more common meaning. Usually more or less signifies a qualified affirmation, and then is not punctuated: He was more or less interested. = He was mildly interested. [...]... psychoanalyst] tells us—and the notion has gained official acceptance to a limited degree—that crime is not so much willful sin as the product of sickness Charles j Rob 3 1 The Other Marks In addition to the stops, punctuation marks include the apostrophe, the quotation mark, the hyphen, the ellipsis, the parenthesis and bracket, and the diacritics We look at these here, along with the related matters of... rarely enough; they require careful interpretation." Often written quotations are worked into the text in a smoother manner by an introductory that The that requires no stop since it turns the quotation into a noun clause acting as the direct object of the verb; and the first word of the quotation is not capitalized: Professor Jones writes that "by themselves statistics are rarely enough; they require... wonder? In the case of question marks and exclamation points, placement depends on whether the stop applies only to the quotation, only to the sentence containing the quotation, or to both When the quotation is a question (or exclamation) and the enclosing sentence is a declarative statement, the query (or exclamation point) comes inside the final quote mark: She asked, "Are we going?" When the quotation... partial to the cleared sides of roads (The roots—which is what most winter foods are—are not subject to the same kind of road pollution as are the leaves.) Ruth Rudner > Parentheses to Enclose Numbers or Letters Marking a Series When numbers or letters introduce the items in a list they should be put within parentheses to differentiate them from the text: We must do three things: (1) study the route... is to mark the omission of material from a quotation If the deleted matter occurs within the quoted sentence, three dots are used: Dante, someone has remarked, is "the last great Catholic poet." Notice the spacing: spaces are left between the preceding word and the first dot, between each dot and the next, and between the last dot and the following word If the omitted material includes the end of the. .. likely to be misused, probably because of confusion with the contraction it's for it is Never use it's for the possessive of it: The cat washed its tail NOT The cat washed it's tail The possessive of who is whose, not who's, which is the contraction of who is t> Apostrophe to Show Contraction A contraction is the coming together of two or more words with the omission of intervening sounds (in writing, ... sentence and/ or the beginning of the next one, four dots are used: Dante, someone has noted, is "the last great Catholic poet ." With four dots the spacing is a little different The first dot, which represents the period of the original statement, is not separated from the word it follows, but the spacing between dots remains Notice too that the ellipsis is placed inside the quote mark If the original... cases: the Far East, Far Eastern history the Midwest, midwestern cities Structures: Names of Buildings, Bridges, and so on the Brooklyn Bridge the Empire State Building THE OTHER MARKS 437 Institutions and Businesses Kearny High School BUT a high school in Kearny Columbia University BUT a university in the city the Boston Symphony Orchestra BUT a symphony orchestra General Motors BUT the motor industry... cat's bowl, the girl's hat, the boy's jacket Singular nouns with a final sibilant also generally add the -'s in modern convention: 418 PUNCTUATION the horse's tail, the apprentice's job However, there is a minor variation of usage in this matter If such a word has several syllables and the final one is unstressed, some writers and editors prefer to drop the -s, using the apostrophe alone to indicate... the omission must not change the substance of what the other writer said, and if you do alter his or her meaning, the use of an ellipsis will not save you from a charge of dishonesty The same caution applies to adding explanatory matter within brackets: it must not substantially alter the original meaning The ellipsis is also used in dialogue to indicate doubt, indecision, weariness, and so on In the . colloquial in tone. Here, then, is the one function which belongs primarily to the dash: The opening paragraph—it is one of Pushkin's famous openings— plunges the reader into the heart of the matter. Rosemary. and halving the figure, that is still one hell Of a pile of pulp. Pauline Kael To revert for a moment to the story told in the first person, it is plain that in that case the narrator has no. the other hand, some writers prefer to omit the comma when the main and the adverbial clauses are both short and unpunctuated within themselves. The comma is often omitted before because if the