The ACLU national headquarters is in New York City. The group maintains a legislative office in Washington, D.C., and a regional office in Atlanta, along with chapters in each state. These state chapters follow the decisions of the national executive board yet are also free to pursue cases on their own. FURTHER READINGS ACLU. ACLU’s Seventy-Five Most Important Supreme Court Cases. Briefing paper. ———. The ACLU Today. Briefing paper. ———. Church and State. Briefing paper. ———. Guardian of Liberty. Briefing paper. American Civil Liberties Union. Available online at www. aclu.org (accessed September 17, 2009) Hershkoff, Helen. 1997. The Rights of the Poor: The Authoritative ACLU Guide to Poor People’s Rights. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press. Walker, Samuel. 1999. In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. CROSS REFERENCES Baldwin, Roger Nash; Bill of Rights; Civil Rights; Frankfurter, Felix; Palmer, Alexander Mitchell; Strossen, Nadine M. AMERICAN FARM BUREAU FEDERATION The American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF) is a NONPROFIT, nonpartisan organization dedicated to promoting, protecting, and representing the interests of U.S. farmers. More than five million members in 50 states and Puerto Rico belong to the AFBF, making it the largest U.S. farm organization. The AFBF is a federation of 2,800 county farm organizations, which elect represen- tatives to state farm bureaus. The organization maintains its general headquarters in Park Ridge, Illinois, and has an office in Washington, D.C. From these offices the AFBF staff offers many services and programs for state and county farm bureaus and members. As of 2009 the AFBF held more than $14 billion in assets. The first county farm bureau was formed in Broome County, New York, in 1911. The word bureau in farm bureau is used because the first organization was formed as a “bureau” of the local chamber of COMMERCE. Missouri was the first state to form a statewide organization of farm bureaus in 1915. The AFBF was founded in 1919 when a small group of farmers from 30 state bureaus gathered in Chicago, Illinois. The AFBF soon became a voice for agriculture at the national level, LOBBYING Congress for passage of legislation favorable to farmers. The AFBF relies on its 2,800 county bureaus for direction and support. Thousands of volun- teer leaders serve on county farm bureau boards and committees. Members organize social out- ings, educational workshops, political action and community forums, and other programs and service s for farm families. State bureaus adopt policies and name delegates to represent them at the AFBF annual meeting. Policies adopted by VOTING delegates govern the federation. These policies de al with many issues, including the use of natural resources, TAXATION, property rights, services to the farm community, trade, food safety and quality, and other issues that affect rural America. The AFBF has historically been a conserva- tive organization, favoring flexible price sup- ports for crops and a minimum of government regulation and oversight. Its government rela- tions division employs a number of registered lobbyists who are specialists on farm policy, trade, budget and taxes, farm credit, labor, transportation, conservation, and the environ- ment. These individuals maintain daily contact with Congress and regulatory agencies and appear before congressional committees. The AFBF’s PUBLIC POLICY division is respon- sible for research, education, and policy support for AFBF and the state farm bureaus. Staff members engage in research projects on a variety of current issues, includ ing property rights, health care, clean water, endangered species, animal welfare, farm programs, and dairy policy. One of the hottest issues that began in the 1990s and continues into the 2000s concerns the current and future role of biotechnology in agriculture. Biotechnology and other technologi- cal developments such as computers, lasers, and robots are also issues closely followed byAFBF and the county and state farm bureaus. Additionally, the AFBF has sought to play a major role in such areas as the continuing development of renewable fuels and international trade. The division coordi- nates several special farm bureau activities, including COMMODITY advisory committees, annual crop surveys, and various national seminars and conferences on policy issues. The federation’s communication division operates a computerized marketing, news, and weather system that delivers the latest news, market information, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE news, and agricultural weather reports to subscribers by satellite. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 268 AMERICAN FARM BUREAU FEDERATION The American Farm Bureau Foundation for Agriculture, founded in 1967, funds research on agricultural issues. The foundation is funded by gifts from individuals, county and state farm bureaus, CORPORATIONS, and foundations. The foundation has funded research on animal waste management, pesticide use, new methods of helping endangered species, and animal welfare education. The foundati on is also active in numerous educational outreach programs in- cluding “Educating About Agriculture,” awards and contests, farm tours and field days, garden and planting projects, mobile classroom units, newsletters, books, and videos. The AFBF sponsors scholarships for teachers as well as a number of grants. FURTHER READINGS American Farm Bureau. Available online at http://www.fb. org (accessed May 11, 2009). Howard, R. P. 1982. James R. Howard and the Farm Bureau. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univ. Press. Woell, Melvin. 1990. Farm Bureau Architects: Through Four Decades. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt. CROSS REFERENCE Farm Credit Administration. AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR— CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS The American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is a volun- tary federation of 56 national and international labor unions. It comprises 65 national union affiliates, 45,000 local unions, 51 state federat ions (including Puerto Rico), 570 central labor councils, and a membership of more than 10 million workers. The organization, which has had enormous political influence since the 1930s, is headquartered in Washington, D.C. However, the AFL-CIO’s influence was weake ned during the mid-2000s when two major national labor unions withdrew from the AFL-CIO. The AFL was formed in 1886 as a loose confederation of 25 autonomous national trade unions with more than 316,000 members. Renouncing identification with any political party or movement, the AFL concentrated on pursuing achievable goals, such as higher wages and shorter work hours. Members were encour- aged to support politicians who were friendly to labor, no matter their party affiliation. During the 1930s the AFL became embroiled in internal conflict. The trade unions that dominated the AFL were composed of skilled workers who opposed organizing the unskilled or semiskilled workers on the manufacturing production line. Several unions rebelled at this refusal to organize and formed the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO). The CIO aggressively organized millions of workers who labored in automobile, steel, and rubber plants. In 1938, unhappy with this effort, the AFL expelled the unions that formed the CIO. The CIO then formed its own organization and changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. By the 1950s, the leade rship of both the AFL and CIO realized that a unified labor movement was necessary. In 1955, the AFL and the CIO merged into a single organization, the AFL-CIO. The AFL-CIO is primarily concerned with influencing legislative policies that affect unions. Its staff membe rs conduct research, set policy, and TESTIFY before congressional and state legislative committees. More importantly, the organization provides funds and volunteers to labor-endorsed political candidates. Although the AFL-CIO is a nonpartisan organization, it traditionally has supported DEMOCRATIC PARTY candidates. With the 1995 election of John J. Sweeney as president, the AFL-CIO has made increased union membership its highest priority. Although Sweeney was subsequently reelected three times, membership in U.S. trade unions has continued to fall over the last several decades as the manufacturing sector of the U.S. economy has steadily declined. Union membership in 1954 comprised 34.7 percent of the workforce. By 2000, this number had declined to 13.4 percent, and by 2007, only 12.1 percent of the workforce were union workers. Sweeney pushed the organization to recruit women, minorities, low-paid workers, and white-collar workers. In 2001 the AFL-CIO launched the New Alliance Initiative with the purpose of restructuring unions at the state and local levels. However, Sweeney was not popular with everyone associated with the AFL-CIO. In 2005, two major unions—the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and the Service Employees International Union—each voted unanimously to withdraw from the AFL-CIO. Heads of both unions cited concerns with the AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 269 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION AFL-CIO’s direction as reasons for leaving the organization. Total membership in the AFL- CIO fell from more than 13 million in 2001 to less than 11 million in 2009. The day-to-day work of the federation is carried out by 11 programmatic departments including the Organizing Department; Field Mobilization Department; Civil, Human and Women’s Rights Department; and the Interna- tional Affairs Department. Topics of major importance to the AFL-CIO include manufactur- ing, CIVIL RIGHTS, the global economy, health care, immigrant workers, minimum-wage issues, pen- sions, and SOCIAL SECURITY. FURTHER READINGS AFL–CIO Website. Available online at http://www.aflcio. org/ (accessed May 11, 2009). Edsall, Thomas B. 2005. “Two Top Unions Split from AFL- CIO.” Washington Post. AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT Founded in 1968, the American Indian Move- ment (AIM) is an organization dedicated to the Native American CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT . Its main objectives are the SOVEREIGNTY of Native American lands and peoples, preservation of their culture and traditions, and enforcement of all treaties with the United States. Despite the straightforwardness of its stated objectives, AIM’s reputation was seriously harmed by well-publicized and controversial incidents of law-breaking, VANDALISM, and violence, resulting in the organization’s peak and decline within a few years. Significant historical events include AIM’s hostile occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969); the “Trail of Broken Treaties” march on Washington, D.C. (1971); occupation of Wounded Knee (1973); and the Pine Ridge shootout of 1975, which resulted in the controversial arrest and IMPRISONMENT of the most famous AIM member, Leonard Peltier. Following these events, the organization’s visibility and viability as a political force greatly declined. History Prior to the formation of AIM, issues involving U.S. Indian–non-Indian relations had largely faded away. Starting in the 1950s, the U.S. government embarked on a serious policy plan to terminate its responsibilities to Native Amer- icans pursuant to extant treaties and agreements. This action included the relocation of thousands of reservation Indians to urban areas and the TERMINATION of federal duties to two major tribes, the Me nominee of Wisconsin and the Klamath of Oregon. (Federal rights were restored to both a few years later.) However, by the 1970s, reloca- tion as well as termination policies were all but abandoned. A number of problems arose when Native Americans left the reservations and inter- mingled with local t owns. Native Americans allegedly caused and/or became parties to local disturbances or crimes. Moreover, after WORLD WAR II and the KOREAN WAR, many Native Americans who had served in the armed forces no longer wanted to return to stereotypical Indian lifestyles. As more intermingling and merging occurred, other Native Americans became increasingly intent on searching for their cultural roots and maintaining their ethn ic identities. They vowed not to be assimilated and their views paralleled the ideals of other CIVIL RIGHTS movements of the era. The most radical elements to emerge from these militant Native American groups ultimately formed the AIM, which was intended as an indigenous version of the BLACK PANTHER PARTY. During the summer of 1968, about 200 members of the Native American community in urban Minneapolis, Minne sota, met to discuss various issues, including slum housing, alleged police brutality, unemployment, and alleged discriminatory policies involving the local American Indian activist Glenn Morris leads a protest against the annual Colombus Day parade in Denver, Colorado. AP IMAGES GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 270 AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT county’s WELFARE system. The group had been impressed with media coverage of the Black Panther policy of monitoring routine police interrogations or arrests and adopted similar tactics. From the beginning, the group stirred controversy in seeking attention. Mobilizing in different cities and gaining momentum, it employed increasingly negative tactics such as holding an “anti-birthday party” for the United States atop Mt. Rushmore on the Fourth of July; painting Plymouth Rock bright red on Thanks- giving Day 1970, and seizing the Mayflower replica. All of these actions served to alienate many would-be sympathizers. However, AIM did get the media attention it desired, which seemed only to spawn further controversy. When the group organized a hostile occupation of Alcatraz Island off the coast of California, AIM finally became a force to be reckoned with, just briefly. Alcatraz On November 9, 1969, a group of Native American supporters, led by Mohawk Richard Oakes, chartered a boat and set out to symboli- cally claim the island of Alcatraz for “Indians of all tribes.” By November 20 the gesture had turned in to a full-scale occupation that ul timately became the longest prolonged occupation by Native Americans of a federal facility or federal property. Early use of Alcatraz Island by indigenous peoples is difficult to reconstruct. Ancient oral histories seem to support the view that at one time Alcatraz was used as a place of isolation for tribal members who had violated some tribal law or taboo and were exiled or ostracized for punishment. Earlier or concurrently, the island changed hands several times during Spanish and Portuguese explo rations, but ultimately it be- came federal property and in time became the site of the infamous federal prison once operated there. Many of the Indian occupiers of November 1969 were students recruited by Oakes from UCLA, who returned with Oakes to Alcatraz and began to live on the island in old federal buildings. They ran a school and daycare center, and began delivering local radio broadcasts that could be heard in the San Francisco Bay area. Initially the federal government placed an effective barricade around the island and insisted that the group leave; the government did, however, agree to an Indian demand for formal negotiations. The talks accomplished nothing, as the Indian group insisted on a deed and CLEAR TITLE to the island. The group continued occupation and the federal govern- ment insisted they depart but took no aggressive action to remove them. Officially, the govern- ment adopted a position of non-interference and hoped that support for the occupation would fade. The FBI and Coast Guard were under strict orders to remain clear of the island and media attention began to dwindle. The occupation continued all through 1970, but by this time, internal problems among the indigenous group caused the occupation to lose momentum. Student recru its left to return to classes at UCLA and were replaced by urban recruits, many of whom had been part of the San Francisco drug and hippie culture of the time. Several rose in opposition to Oakes’s leadership on the island, and Oakes ultimately left after his teenaged stepdaughter fell to her death in a building stairwell. After several months of hostile occupation, the federal government shut off electric power to the island and removed the water barge that had been supplying fresh water to the occupiers. A fire broke out, and both sides blamed the other for the loss of several historic buildings. Splintered leadership on the island resulted in the loss of a common voice with which to NEGOTIATE with the government. When the occupiers began strip- ping the remaining buildings of copper wiring and tubing, the press turned on them and began publishing stories of assaults, drugs, violence, and the trial of three Indians found guilty of selling 600 pounds of copper. With government patience growing thin, then-president RICHARD NIXON finally approved a peaceful removal plan, to be conducted with as little force as possible and when the least number of people were on the isl and. On June 10, 1971, FBA agents, armed federal marshals, and special forces police removed five women, four children, and six unarmed men from the island. Trail of Broken Treaties In November 1971 AIM organized what it called the Trail of Broken Treaties, a march on Washington, D.C., involving approximately 1,000 angry Native Americans. It ended with the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT 271 (BIA) headquarters. After taking over the offices, AIM protesters seized large numb ers of files from the BIA offices and caused more than $2 million in DAMAGES to the trashed building. They also presented President Nixon with 20 demands for immediate action. The Nixon administration provided $66,000 in transporta- tion monies in return for a peaceful end to the takeover. It also agreed to appoint a Native American to a BIA post. Again, the real success for AIM was in getting some media attention and in heightening public awareness of unre- solved Indian issues. Wounded Knee The tiny village of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, is the historic site of an infamous 1890 massacre of Native Americans (the last) by the U.S. Cavalry. The original site and burial ground became part of the Pine Ridge Indian reservation in that state. In 1973 about 200 members of the local Oglala Lakota Indians, led by AIM members, seized the village of Wounded Knee (a Catholic church, trading post, and post office) and declared it to be an independent nation. Their single demand was the return of the Great Sioux Nation (a sovereign parcel of REAL ESTATE comprising the entire western half of South Dakota) allegedly promised to them by the United States in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. Just prior to this development, on the nearby Pin e Ridge reservation, tribal council president Dick Wilson (a Native American) had secured a tribal council order prohibiting AIM members from attending or speaking at reser- vation meetings or public gatherings. He considered AIM members to be lawless misfits bent on agita ting the populace. AIM members, in return, accused Wilson of nepotism, corrup- tion, and mismanagement of tribal monies. A group of Wilson supporters, locally referred to as the “goon squad,” began harassing and threatening AIM members. The Lakota Indians invited AIM to meet with their group, and both decided to take a stand at Wounded Knee. At this point, the federal government, including the BIA, remained neutral, clai ming the stand- off was an internal tribal dispute. When AIM occupiers built fortifications and took up arms and munitions, both Wilson and the federal government (FBI , U.S. marshals, and BIA police) moved in. In the well-publicized 71-day occupation that followed, two AIM members were killed. Ultimately, AIM leaders negotiated a “peace pact” with the government stipulating that the activists would be treated fairly and that the federal government would conduct a fair review of several treaties. Although the immediate stand-off was defused, tensions between Wilson’s goon squad and AIM members continued over the next several years. Dozens of AIM members, includ- ing early foundi ng members Russell Means and DENNIS BANKS, were indicted on dozens of charges related to the Wounded Knee stando ff. The charges were ultimately dropped when a federal judge acknowledged spurious activity and involvement by the FBI. Pine Ridge Wilson’s t ribal leadership at the Pine Ridge reservation was reportedly federally sanctioned and supported. Allegations arose at the trials of AIM members that goon squad members were paid with BIA monies and that many of the members were in fact off-duty BIA police. Several murders occurred on the reservation and were never fully investigated. For its part, the FBI maintained that it was an investigatory rather than enforcement agency, a position that further exacerbated the regional tension and fear. In June 1975 two FBI agents in an unmarked car and clad in civilian clothes chased a pickup truck into an isolated area near an AIM encampment. During the resulting shootout, the two FBI agents were shot and killed, along with one Indian activist. Over the next several days, more than 300 FBI agents swarmed the reservation, followed by officers making dozens of arrests and prosecutions. Ultimately, AIM activist Peltier was tried and convicted for his role in the FBI killings, receiving two life sentences. His trial and CONVICTION remained shrouded with allegations of suppressed evidence, coerced WITNESSES, and a fabricated MURDER weapon. Later Years Following the Pine Knee incident, AIM declined rapidly in both leadership and momentum. It held its last national unified event in 1978 and the following year dismantled as a national organization in favor of independent regional chapters. Means and Banks were in and out of court for years defending their leadership roles in the 1973 and 1975 shootouts. Eventually, both were acquitted of all significant charges. Bank s GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 272 AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT went on to found another Indian organization, the Sacred Run, devoted to spiritual renewal and environmental issues. In 2007, Means made news when he announced that the Lakota Indian tribe would withdraw from treaties with the United States. However, several other tribal leaders opposed Means’ stance. Peltier remained in prison. As of 2003, the FBI refused to release nearly 500 documents on Peltier, being withheld on grounds of “national security.” In 2009 Peltier’s family reported that the 64-year-old had been beaten by a gang of inmates at the U.S. PENITENTIARY in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. Some called for President BARACK OBAMA to PARDON Peltier. In 1978 Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA)(42 U.S. C.A. § 1996), designed to review and update federal policies regarding such matters as Native Americans’ right to access sacred grounds and legal rights to practice their traditional reli gions. Reviews and recommendations were made. Pursuant to this action, Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repa- triation Act, Public L. No. 101-601, 104 Stat. 3048, in 1990 but in that same year, the U.S. Supreme Court reiterated its 1988 ruling that AIRFA was a policy statement and not law. As such, there was no LEGAL RIGHT to the protection of sacred sites or the religious use of peyote in the Native American RELIGION. Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protection Association, 483 U.S. 439, 107 S. Ct. 2924, 97 L. Ed. 2d 364 (1988). New sacred land protection legislation was again introduced in 2002, but the legislation died in committee. FURTHER READINGS American Indian Movement Website. Available online at http://www.aimovement.org/ (accessed May 11, 2009). Churchill, Ward. June 1997. “A Force, Briefly, To Reckon With.” Progressive. Johnson, Troy. “We Hold the Rock: The American Indian Occupation of Alcatraz Island.” Indians of North America. Long Beach: California State Univ. Press. Marshall, Joseph M., III, and Sicangu Lakota. 2000. “Wounded Knee Takover, 1973.” Encyclopedia of North American Indians. Houghton Mifflin. Oswalt, Wendell H., and Sharlotte Neely. 1994. This Land Was Theirs. 5th ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Singer, Daniel. July 18, 1994. “Free Peltier!” Nation. CROSS REFERENCES Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990; Native American Rights. AMERICAN ISRAEL PUBLIC AFFAIRS COMMITTEE The American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) is a national advocacy group that lobbies for U.S. support to the nation of Israel. Founded in 1951, AIPAC has grown into a 100,000-member organization that is recog- nized as one of the most influential foreign policy groups in the United States. AIPAC has lobbied Congress for U.S. foreign aid to Israel since 1951, when it helped defeat several efforts to cut aid for the resettling of hundreds of thousands of Holocaust REFUGEES in Israel. In addition, AIPAC has lobbied for U.S. military aid to Israel and has helped preserve the special relationship that has existed between the United States and Israel since the United States recognized the nation of Israel in 1948. AIPAC is headquartered in Washington, D.C. Members of its staff maintain an active presence in the halls of Congress, attending committee sessions and reviewing legislation that may affect the relationship between the United States and Israel. AIPAC estimates that it monitors 2,000 hours of congressional hearings annually. Research staff members analyze per- iodicals and documents in five different lan- guages, amassing a large archive of information on hundreds of issues, including foreign aid, antiterrorism initiatives, and programs that promote United States-Israel strategic coopera- tion. AIPAC staff members also work with key officials in developing legislation and policy, presenting concepts and information that are moved into the legislative process. AIPAC lobbyists hold 1,000 meetings annually with congressional offices. AIPAC also works with aspiring politicians. During the 1994 elections, representatives of AIPAC met with 600 congressional candidates. Since 1990, AIPAC has worked to educate these new legislators about the relationship between the United States and Israel and the key issues critical to maintaining that relationship. AIPAC staff frequently meets with every freshman representative. Likewise , AIPAC representatives meet with members of new presidential admin- istrations, including the administration of President BARACK OBAMA in 2009. AIPAC regional staff members travel to more than 600 communities a year to train AIPAC members to be effective advocates for United States-Israel relations. AIPAC works in GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION AMERICAN ISRAEL PUBLIC AFFAIRS COMMITTEE 273 every congressional district, especially those districts with little or no Jewish population. AIPAC conducts small meetings and statewide workshops, giving its members the opportunity to become involved in grassroots LOBBYING. The influence of AIPAC remains strong. The United States has appropriated billions of dollars to support Israel, and AIPAC has been influential in building and maintaining support for the Jewish state. Additional funds have been appropriated to help SETTLE Jewish refugees in Israel. AIPAC has also maintained congressional support for Israel’s position in the Middle East peace process, arguing that attempts to distance the United States from Israel’s position only encourage its Arab neighbors to ask for unilateral concessions. AIPAC belie ves that the peace process will only achieve results if the close working relationship between the United States and Israel continues. Following the SEPTEMBER 11TH ATTACKS in 2001, AIPAC has stepped up its agenda to make sure that the United States continues to ensure Israel’s security by working with Congress to isolate and financial ly constrict such groups as Hamas, Hezbollah, and Palestinian Islamic Jihad. AIPAC has continued to support U.S. efforts to isolate and pressure Palestinian authority chair- man Yasir Afarat to stop bombings and SUICIDE missions within Israel. Through its Web site, the organization keeps members updated on protec- tive measures taken by the Israeli people as the United States initiated war with Iraq in 2003. More recent efforts have focused on tensions with Iran, which has sought to develop a nuclear program. AIPAC has supported dozens of bills related to Iran, including the Iran Freedom Support Act, Pub. L. No. 109-293, 120 Stat. 1344 (2006), which renewed sanctions. FURTHER READINGS American Israel Public Affairs Committee. Available online at http://www.aipac.org (accessed May 12, 2009). Bass, Warren. 2003. Support Any Friend: Kennedy’s Middle East and the Making of the U.S. Israel Alliance. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Wright, John R. 1995. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. New York: Addison-Wesley. AMERICAN LEGION The American Legion is a wartime veterans’ organization chartered by Congress in 1919. The American Legion has almost three million members in nearly 15,000 American Legion posts worldwide. These posts are organized into 55 departments, one each for the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, France, Mexico, and the Philippines. The American Legion’s national headquarters is in Indianapo- lis, Indiana, with additional offices in Washing- ton, D.C. Though volun teer members do most of the work of the American Legion, the national organization has a regular full-time staff of about 300 employees. Eligibility in the American Legion is based on honorable service in the U.S. armed forces during WORLD WAR I, WORLD WAR II,theKOREAN WAR,the VIETNAM WAR, and military operations in Lebanon (1982–84); Grenada (1982–84); Panama (1989– 90); and the Gulf Wars (1990–). Membership is based on the period of service, not the place of service, so an individual does not have to be stationed in a combat zone to be eligible. Members may participate in a low-cost life insurance program and may receive discounts on moving expenses, car rentals, hotel and motel rentals, eyewear, and prescription drugs. Ameri- can Legion service officers provide free advice and guidance to veterans who need to deal with the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) about benefits and other issues. The American Legion sponsors many com- munity activities and programs. Students show- ing the highest qualities of citizen ship are recognized with an American Legion School Medal Award. More than 30,000 students in elementary, junior high, and senior high schools are recognized annually for their COMMITMENT to honor, courage, scholarship, leadership, and service. The organization also awards 10 national college scholarships each year. At the state level, 49 departments host Boys State programs each summer for outstanding high school juniors. Local posts sponsor nearly 28,000 young men each year to attend the week-long government education program. Two outstanding leaders from each of these Boys State programs are selected to attend the American Legion Boys Nation in Washington, D.C. The American Legion Auxiliary conducts parallel programs for young women through Girls State and Girls Nation. Many local posts sponsor Junior Shooti ng Clubs, which provide training in gun safety and marksmanship for students ages 14 through 20. However, the American Legion is probably best GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 274 AMERICAN LEGION known for its sponsorship of youth baseball programs. The American Legion spends mil- lions each year to sponsor more than 4,800 baseball teams representing more than 89,000 players. Champions from the state level meet on the national level in the American Legion World Series tournament. The American Legion has always been a strong advocate for U.S. veterans, appearing before congressional committees to submit information and viewpoints on pending legisla- tion. The Veterans Affairs and Rehabilitation Commission (VAR) is a cornerstone of the American Legion, overseeing federally mandat- ed programs provided by the VA for veterans and their dependents. VAR services include assistance with medical care, claims and appeals, insurance programs, burial benefits, and veter- ans’ employment. Staff members also commu- nicate with administrators of state veterans’ affairs programs. American Legion volunteers give more than one million hours of service to disabled veterans annually. Field representatives from the Ameri- can Legion’s Washington office systematically visit VA medical centers, nursing homecare units, and outpatient clinics to evaluate their programs and facilities. The field representatives report resource needs and areas for improvement to the VA headquarters in Washington, D.C. For a number of years the Legion and other members of the Citizens Flag Alliance have continued to lobby Congress for a CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT that would impose penalties for desecration of the U.S. flag. The Legion has also been active in LOBBYING for mandatory recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in public schools. After the SEPTEMBER 11TH ATTACKS in 2001, the Legion established the American Legion Septem- ber 11 Memorial Scholarship to help defray college costs for children of deceased military personnel. FURTHER READINGS American Legion. Available online at http://www.legion.org (accessed May 12, 2009). Moley, Raymond. 1975. The American Legion Story. West- port, CT: Greenwood. Rumer, Thomas. 1990. The American Legion: An Official History, 1919–1989. New York: Evans. AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION The American Medical Association (AMA) is a federation of state and territorial medical associations. The AMA seeks to promote the art and science of medicine, the medical profession, and the betterment of public health. Its purposes include obtaining, synthesizing, integrating, and disseminating information about health and medical practice; setting standards for medical ethics, practice, and education; and being an influential advocate for physic ians and their patients. The AMA was founded in 1847. At its organizing convention, the AMA adopted the first code of ethics in the United States, a detailed document that addressed the obligations of physicians to patients and to each other and the duties of the profession to the public at large. The delegates also adopted the first national standards for medical education through a RESOLUTION establishing prerequisites for the study of medi- cine. Since that time, the AMA has grown into a large organization with great influence over issues involving health care and medicine. It is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. The AMA speaks out on issues important to the medical community. AMA policy on such issues is decided through a democratic process, at the center of which is the AMA House of Delegates. The house is comprised of physician delegates from every state, the national medical specialty societies, the SURGEON GENERAL of the United States, and sections representing organized medical staffs, young physicians, resident physi- cians, medical students, and medical schools. Before the opening of the House of Dele- gates, which meets twice per year, individual committees consider resolutions and reports in hearings open to all AMA members. Each committee prepares recommendations for the delegates. The house then votes on these recommendations, deciding the AMA’s formal position and future action on an issue. The AMA has been active in numerous healthcare initiatives that affect the U.S. popu- lace as a whole. In the 1990s the AMA launched a campaign against family violence and violence in schools and called on TOBACCO companies to refrain from engagin g in advertising practices that target children. The AMA also launched a national campaign against so-called “drive- through” baby deliveries that ended with the passing of legislation requiring insurance com- panies to provide appropriate hospitalization and maternity stays. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION 275 In 2000 the AMA announced the first stage of its health literacy campaign that was aimed at increasing patient comprehension of basic healthcare communications such as prescrip- tion instructions and insurance forms. The AMA also began an initiative to reduce under- age drinking. In a more controversial area, the AMA has been active in medical LIABILITY reform efforts in several states. The AMA has main- tained the position that the problems of rising healthcare costs are due to the costs of MEDICAL MALPRACTICE suits and has vigorously supported medical liability reform legislation. The AMA opposed the creation of MEDICARE in the 1960s and during the 2000s has remained opposed to national healthcare insurance. In the late 2000s, the AMA advocated for reforms in Medicare payment programs. The AMA also called on Congress to end Medicare cuts caused by economic downturns. In 2009, the AMA opposed congressional proposals for a public insurance plan. However, as Congress appeared closer to passing a health care reform bill in December 2009, the AMA expressed support for the proposal. The AMA is the world’s largest publisher of scientific medical information. The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) is printed in 12 languages and reaches physicians in 42 countries worldwide, making it the world’s most widely read medical journal. The AMA also publishes nine monthly medical specialty journals as well as a newspaper of social and economic health news, American Medical News. Web site: http://www.ama-assn.org/ FURTHER READINGS American Medical Association. Available online at http:// www.ama-assn.org/ (accessed June 13, 2009). Kirkpatrick, David D. 2009. “Groups Back Health Reform, but Seek Cover.” New York Times. September 11. Pear, Robert. 2009. “Doctors’ Group Opposes Public Insurance Plan.” New York Times. June 10. CROSS REFERENCES Health Care Law; Medicare. AMERICAN PARTY See KNOW-NOTHING PARTY. AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT See DISABILITY DISCRIMINATION. v AMES, JAMES BARR James Barr Ames was born June 22, 1846, in Boston. He achieved prominence as an educator and concentrated his career efforts at Harvard University. James Barr Ames. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS James Barr Ames 1846–1910 ❖ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ 1846 Born, Boston, Mass. 1868 Graduated Harvard College 1872 Received J. D., Harvard Law School 1877 Became Professor of Law at Harvard 1897 Helped found Harvard Law Review 1899 Awarded Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from U. Penn 1895–1910 Dean of Harvard Law School 1904 Awarded Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard 1910 Died, Wilton, N.H. 1913 Lectures on Legal History published ▼▼ ▼▼ 18251825 18751875 19001900 19251925 18501850 ◆ ◆ ◆ ❖ AN IMMORTAL RIGHT TO BRING AN ETERNALLY PROHIBITED ACTION IS A METAPHYSICAL SUBTLETY THAT THE PRESENT WRITER CANNOT PRETEND TO UNDERSTAND . —JAMES AMES GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 276 AMERICAN PARTY A graduate of Harvard College in 1868, Ames earned a master of arts degree in 1871 and attended Harvard Law School in 1872. He received several doctor of laws degrees from various universities, in cluding the University of Pennsylvania in 1899, Northwestern University in 1903, and Harvard in 1904. In 1868 Ames began his teaching career as an instructor for a private school in Boston. Three years later he began his professional association with Harvard, acting as a tutor in French and German until 1872 and continuing as an instructor in medieval history for the next year. From 1873 to 1877 he was an associate professor of law; in 1877, he became a professor of law. From 1895 to 1910 he performed the duties of dean of the law school. In 1897 he participated in the establishment of the Harvard Law Review. Ames distinguished himself as a teacher of law by utilizing the CASE METHOD introduced by legal educator and former Harvard Dean CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS LANGDELL. Langdell’s ap- proach presented principles of law in relation to actual cases to which they were applied. By studying the cases, a student of law was given an accurate example of the law at work. Ames extended his talents to the field of legal literature. He is the author of Lectures on Legal History, which was published in 1913. He died January 8, 1910, in Wilton, New Hampshire. CROSS REFERENCE Legal Education. v AMES, SAMUEL Samuel Ames was born September 6, 1806. He graduated from Brown University in 1823 and was admitted to the Rhode Island bar in 1826. From 1841 to 1851 Ames represented Providence in the Rhode Island general assem- bly. During his TENURE, he was a prominent supporter of state authority in the “Dorr Rebellion.” This INSURRECTION occurred in 1842 as a PROTEST against the limited VOTING rights that existed in Rhode Island. The protest resulted in a more liberal interpretation of the right to SUFFRAGE. Beginning in 1856 Ames served as chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court. In 1861 he was the representative from Rhode Island during a series of unsuccessful negotia- tions to effect a peace between the North and South during the Civil War. Ames died December 20, 1865, in Providence, Rhode Island. CROSS REFERENCE Dorr, Thomas Wilson. Samuel Ames. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS Samuel Ames 1806–1865 ◆◆◆ ◆ ◆ ❖ 1806 Born, Providence, Rhode Island 1826 Admitted to Rhode Island Bar 1823 Graduated from Brown University 1841 Elected to R.I. General Assembly 1842 Dorr Rebellion 1845–46 Served as speaker of R.I. General Assembly 1861–65 U.S. Civil War 1856–65 Served as chief justice of R.I. Supreme Court 1865 Died, Providence, R.I. 1832 Treatise on the Law of Private Corporations Aggregate published, written with Joseph K. Angell ▼▼ ▼▼ 18001800 18751875 18501850 18251825 ❖ IT IS DIFFICULT TO DRAW AND APPLY THE PRECISE LINE SEPARATING THE DIFFERENT POWERS OF GOVERNMENT . —SAMUEL AMES GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION AMES, SAMUEL 277 . Penn 18 95 19 10 Dean of Harvard Law School 19 04 Awarded Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard 19 10 Died, Wilton, N.H. 19 13 Lectures on Legal History published ▼▼ ▼▼ 18 2 518 25 18 7 518 75 19 0 019 00 19 2 519 25 18 5 018 50 ◆ ◆ ◆ ❖ AN. associate professor of law; in 18 77, he became a professor of law. From 18 95 to 19 10 he performed the duties of dean of the law school. In 18 97 he participated in the establishment of the Harvard Law. justice of R.I. Supreme Court 18 65 Died, Providence, R.I. 18 32 Treatise on the Law of Private Corporations Aggregate published, written with Joseph K. Angell ▼▼ ▼▼ 18 0 018 00 18 7 518 75 18 5 018 50 18 2 518 25 ❖ IT