Copper Media 129 When working with cable, consider its size. As the diameter of the cable increases, so does the difficulty in working with it because cable must be pulled through existing conduits that are limited in size. Coaxial cable comes in several sizes. The largest diam- eter (1 cm) was once specified for use as Ethernet backbone cable because it had a greater transmission length and better noise rejection characteristics than other types of cable. This type of coaxial cable is frequently referred to as thicknet, as shown in Figure 3-11. As its nickname suggests, thicknet cable can be too rigid to install easily in some situations because of its thickness. The general rule is that the more difficult the network medium is to install, the more expensive it is to install. Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than twisted-pair cable. Thicknet cable is almost never used except for special-purpose installations. Figure 3-11 Coaxial Cable—Thicknet Coaxial cable with a diameter of 0.35 cm, sometimes referred to as thinnet, was also frequently used in Ethernet networks at one time. Thinnet, as shown in Figure 3-12, was especially useful for cable installations that required the cable to make many twists and turns. Because it was easier to install, it was also cheaper to install. Thus, it was sometimes referred to as Cheapernet. Figure 3-12 Coaxial Cable—Thinnet 1102.book Page 129 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 130 Chapter 3: Networking Media However, in both types of coaxial cable, the outer conductor must be carefully and properly grounded, which increases the complexity of the installation. It is for this rea- son that, despite its advantages, coaxial cable is no longer commonly used in Ethernet networks. Although many bus topology networks still utilize coaxial cable in use throughout the world, the IEEE no longer recommends this cable or topology as a standard for use with Ethernet. Nearly all new LANs use Ethernet extended star topology and a combi- nation of UTP and fiber. The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables: ■ Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps ■ Average cost per node—Inexpensive ■ Media and connector size—Medium ■ Maximum cable length—500 m (medium) Cable Specification and Termination Specifications, or standards, are sets of rules or procedures that are widely used and serve as the accepted method of performing a task. For example, the OSI reference model standards help to ensure that networking devices around the world are compatible and will work together. Many specifications exist for cabling to ensure interoperability, safety, and performance. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has outlined LAN cabling specifications. IEEE 802.3 is a standard for Ethernet networks, and IEEE 802.5 is a Token Ring network standard. The Underwriters Laboratories issues standards that are primarily concerned with safety. More Information: Plenum Cable Plenum cable is the cable that runs in plenum spaces of a building. In building construction, a plenum (pronounced PLEH-nuhm, from Latin meaning “full”) is a separate space provided for air circulation for heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (sometimes referred to as HVAC), typically in the space between the structural ceiling and a drop-down ceiling. In buildings with computer installations, the plenum space often is used to house connecting communication cables. Because ordinary cable introduces a toxic hazard in the event of fire, special plenum cabling is required in plenum areas. Plenum cable sheathing is often is made of Teflon and is more expensive than ordinary cabling. Its outer material is more resistant to flames and, when burning, produces less smoke than ordinary cabling. Both twisted-pair and coaxial cable are made in plenum cable versions. 1102.book Page 130 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Copper Media 131 The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) have jointly issued cabling standards often called TIA/EIA standards. The list that follows describes some of the TIA/EIA standards: ■ TIA/EIA-568-B—This is a commercial building telecommunication cabling standard. ■ TIA/EIA-569-B—Formerly the TIA/EIA-568-A standard. This is a commercial building standard for telecommunications pathways and spaces. ■ TIA/EIA-570-A—This is a residential and light commercial telecommunications wiring standard. ■ TIA/EIA-606—This is an administration standard for the telecommunications infrastructure of commercial buildings. ■ TIA/EIA-607—This is a commercial building grounding and bonding require- ment for telecommunications. The specifications created by this organization have had the greatest impact on net- working media standards and include standards for horizontal and backbone (vertical) cabling, wiring closets and equipment rooms, work areas, and entrance facilities. The TIA/EIA standards allow for the planning and installation of LAN equipment in a way that allows network designers the freedom to choose the devices needed while assuring the operability of the LAN design. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard focuses on horizontal cabling, which is cabling that runs from a wall outlet at a work area to a wiring closet. There are five historic categories for cable (CAT 1 through CAT 5), and of these, only CAT 3, CAT 4, and CAT 5 meet the TIA/EIA-568-B standard. CAT 5 cable is the most frequently installed. Recent stan- dards have been developed for CAT 5e and CAT 6, and a new standard for CAT 7 cabling is also underway. These new standards offer improvements to CAT 5 and are becoming more common. TIA/EIA-568-B calls for two cables to each work area outlet: ■ A telephone cable for voice ■ A network cable for data The voice cable must be a 2-pair UTP cable with its correct connectors, or terminators. The network cable must be one of the following and must include the correct connectors, or terminators: ■ 150 ohm STP 2-pair cable (Token Ring LANs) ■ 100 ohm UTP 4-pair cable (Ethernet LANs) ■ 62.5/125 µ fiber-optic cable (Ethernet LANs) 1102.book Page 131 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 132 Chapter 3: Networking Media ■ Coaxial cable (rarely used for new installations and expected to be removed from this list the next time the standard is updated) Although not part of the standard, a coaxial 75 ohm RG-6 cable can also be run for cable TV connection, in addition to the minimum voice and data connections if desired. The standard also specifies the maximum length of each cabling run from the wall out- let to the wiring closet connections for UTP cabling. A 3-meter patch cord is specified from the workstation to the wall outlet. A 90-meter cable run is allowed from the wall outlet to the patch panel in the wiring closet. A 6-meter patch cord is permitted from the patch panel to the horizontal cross connect in the wiring closet. This standard ensures that the entire cable run does not exceed 100 meters. Lab Activity Basic Cable Testing In this lab, you use a simple cable tester to verify whether a straight-through or crossover cable is good or bad. You also use the Fluke 620 advanced cable tester to test cables for length and connectivity. Lab Activity Making a Straight-Through Cable In this lab, you build a CAT 5 or CAT 5e UTP Ethernet network patch cable (or patch cord). You also test the cable for good connections (continuity) and correct pinouts (correct color of wire on the right pin). Lab Activity Making a Rollover Cable In this lab, you build a CAT 5 or CAT 5e UTP console rollover cable. You also test the cable for good connections (continuity) and correct pinouts (correct wire on the right pin). Lab Activity Making a Crossover Cable In this lab, you build a CAT 5 or CAT 5e UTP Ethernet crossover cable to TIA-568-B and TIA-568-A standards. You also test the cable for good connec- tions (continuity) and correct pinouts (correct wire on the right pin). 1102.book Page 132 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Optical Media 133 Optical Media Optical fiber is the most frequently used medium for the longer, high bandwidth, point- to-point transmissions required on LAN backbones and on wide-area networks (WANs). Very good reasons exist for the popularity of fiber. Optical fiber is used in networks because ■ Fiber is not susceptible to lightning, electromagnetic interference (EMI), or radio frequency interference (RFI), and it does not generate EMI or RFI. ■ Fiber has much greater bandwidth capabilities than other media. ■ Fiber allows significantly greater transmission distances and excellent signal quality because very little signal attenuation occurs. ■ Fiber is more secure than other media because it is difficult to tap into a fiber and easy to detect someone’s placing a tap on the fiber. ■ Current fiber transmitter and receiver technologies can be replaced by newer, faster devices as they are developed so that greater transmission speeds can be achieved over existing fiber links with no need to replace the fiber. ■ Fiber costs less than copper for long distance applications. ■ The raw material that fiber is made from is sand, a plentiful substance. ■ With fiber, you have no grounding concerns as you have when signaling using electricity. ■ Fiber is light in weight and easily installed. ■ Fiber has better resistance to environmental factors, like water, than copper wire. ■ Lengths of fiber can easily be spliced together for very long cable runs. For these reasons, when very large numbers of bits need to be sent over distances greater than 100 meters, fiber-optic fiber is often used. This section explains the basics of fiber-optic cable. You learn about how fibers can guide light for long distances. You also learn about the types of cable used, how fiber is installed, the type of connectors and equipment used with fiber-optic cable, and how fiber is tested to ensure that it functions properly. Lab Activity UTP Cable Purchase In this lab, you are introduced to the variety and prices of network cabling and related components in the market. This lab looks specifically at patch cables and bulk cable. 1102.book Page 133 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 134 Chapter 3: Networking Media The Electromagnetic Spectrum The light used in optical fiber networks is one type of electromagnetic energy. When an electric charge moves back and forth or accelerates, a type of energy called electromag- netic energy is produced. This energy, in the form of waves, can travel through a vacuum, the air, and through some materials like glass. An important property of any energy wave is its wavelength, as shown in Figure 3-13. Figure 3-13 Wavelength To human beings, radio, microwaves, radar, visible light, X rays, and gamma rays seem to be very different things, but they are all types of electromagnetic energy. If all the types of electromagnetic waves are arranged in order from waves with the longest wavelength down to those waves with the shortest wavelength, it creates a continuum called the Electromagnetic Spectrum, as shown in Figure 3-14. Figure 3-14 Electromagnetic Spectrum The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is determined by how frequently the elec- tric charge that generates the wave moves back and forth. For example, if the charge moves back and forth slowly, it generates a long wavelength. Visualize the movement of the electric charge as like that of a stick in a pool of water. If the stick is moved back 1102.book Page 134 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Optical Media 135 and forth slowly, it generates ripples in the water with a long wavelength between the tops of the ripples. If the stick is moved back and forth more rapidly, the ripples have a shorter wavelength. Because electromagnetic waves are all generated in the same way, all electromagnetic waves share many of the same properties. For example, they all travel at the same rate of speed through a vacuum, about 300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second or the speed of light. Human eyes can sense electromagnetic energy only with wavelengths between 700 nanometers and about 400 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter (0.000000001 m) in length and is abbreviated nm. Electromagnetic energy with wave- lengths between 700 nm and 400 nm is called visible light. The longer wavelengths of light (those around 700 nm) are seen as the color red. The shortest wavelengths (around 400 nm) appear as the color violet. This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is seen as the colors in a rainbow. To transmit data over optical fiber, wavelengths that are not visible to the human eye are used. These wavelengths are slightly longer than red light and are called infrared light. Infrared light is used in TV remote controls. The wavelength of the light in opti- cal fiber is one of the following wavelengths: ■ 850 nm ■ 1310 nm ■ 1550 nm These wavelengths were selected because they travel better through optical fiber than other wavelengths. The Ray Model of Light When electromagnetic waves, including light, travel out from the source, they travel in straight lines. These straight lines pointing out from the source are called rays. Think of light rays as narrow beams of light like those produced by lasers. In the vacuum of empty space, light travels continuously in a straight line at 300,000 kilometers per second. However, light travels at different, slower speeds through other materials like air, water, and glass. When a light ray (called the incident ray) crosses the boundary from one material (air, for example) to another (glass, for example), some of the light energy in the ray is reflected back. That is why you can see yourself in a mirror. The light that is reflected back is called the reflected ray. 1102.book Page 135 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 136 Chapter 3: Networking Media The light energy in the incident ray that is not reflected enters the glass. The entering ray is usually bent at an angle from its original path. This ray is called the refracted ray. How much the incident light ray is bent depends on two factors: ■ The angle at which the incident ray strikes the surface of the glass ■ The different rates of speed at which light travels through the two substances (air and glass in this example) The bending of light rays at the boundary of two substances is the reason why light rays are able to travel through an optical fiber even if the fiber curves in a circle. How much rays of light in glass bend is determined by the optical density of the glass. Optical density refers to how much a light ray is slowed down by passing through a substance. The greater the optical density of a material, the more it slows light down from its speed in a vacuum. The ratio of the speed of light in a material to the speed of light in a vacuum is called the material’s index of refraction (IR) and is expressed as follows: Therefore, the measure of a material’s optical density is that material’s index of refrac- tion. A material with a large index of refraction is more optically dense and slows light down more than a material with a smaller index of refraction. Table 3-2 shows the IR of air, glass, diamond, and water. For a substance like glass, the index of refraction (the optical density) can be made larger by adding chemicals to the glass. The index of refraction can be made smaller by making the glass very pure. In the next two sections, you learn more about the reflection and refraction that help you to understand the design and operation of optical fibers. Table 3-2 Index of Refraction Substance Index of Refraction Air 1.000 Glass 1.523 Diamond 2.419 Water 1.333 IR Speed of light in a vacuum Speed of light in a material = 1102.book Page 136 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM Optical Media 137 The Law of Reflection When light travels through a medium like air and strikes another medium like glass, the light either reflects off the surface or passes into or through the second medium, as shown in Figure 3-15. It depends on the angle it strikes the surface. The angle between the incident ray and a line perpendicular to the surface of the glass at the point where the incident ray strikes the glass is called the angle of incidence. When this angle of incidence reaches a certain point, called the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into the original medium, as illustrated in Figure 3-16. Figure 3-15 Reflection Figure 3-16 Critical Angel The perpendicular line is called the normal. It is not a light ray but a tool to allow the measurement of angles. The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection. The Law of Reflection states that the angle of reflection of a light ray is equal to its angle of incidence. In other words, the angle at which a light ray strikes a reflective surface determines the angle that the ray reflects off the surface. 1102.book Page 137 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM 138 Chapter 3: Networking Media The Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law) When light strikes the interface between two transparent materials like air and glass, the light divides into two parts. Part of the light ray is reflected back into the first substance (the air), with the angle of reflection equaling the angle of incidence. The remaining energy in the light ray crosses the interface and enters into the second sub- stance (the glass). If the incident ray strikes the glass surface at exactly a 90-degree angle, the ray goes straight into the glass. The ray is not bent. But, if the angle of incidence is not exactly 90 degrees, then the ray that enters the glass (the transmitted ray) is bent. We call this bending of the entering ray refraction. How much the ray is bent (refracted) depends on the index of refraction of the two transparent materials. If the light ray travels from a substance whose index of refraction is smaller into a substance where the index of refraction is larger, the refracted ray is bent towards the normal. If the light ray travels from a substance where the index of refraction is larger into a substance where the index of refraction is smaller, the refracted ray is bent away from the normal. Figure 3-17 illustrates an example of refraction. Figure 3-17 Refraction For example, consider a light ray moving at some angle other than 90 degrees through the boundary between glass and a diamond, as shown in Figure 3-18. The glass has an index of refraction of about 1.523. The diamond has an index of refraction of about 2.419. Therefore, the ray that continues into the diamond is bent towards the normal. When that light ray crosses the boundary between the diamond and the air at some angle other than 90 degrees, it is bent away from the normal. The reason for this is that air has a lower index of refraction (about 1.000) than does diamond. 1102.book Page 138 Tuesday, May 20, 2003 2:53 PM . (Token Ring LANs) ■ 10 0 ohm UTP 4-pair cable (Ethernet LANs) ■ 62. 5 / 12 5 µ fiber-optic cable (Ethernet LANs) 11 02. book Page 13 1 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM 13 2 Chapter 3: Networking Media ■ Coaxial. Cheapernet. Figure 3 - 12 Coaxial Cable—Thinnet 11 02. book Page 12 9 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM 13 0 Chapter 3: Networking Media However, in both types of coaxial cable, the outer conductor must be carefully and. TIA-568-A standards. You also test the cable for good connec- tions (continuity) and correct pinouts (correct wire on the right pin). 11 02. book Page 13 2 Tuesday, May 20 , 20 03 2: 53 PM Optical Media 13 3 Optical