Train Your Brain Build a Framework for Clear Thinking Take Full Advantage of Your Brain’s Exceptional Powers By Dr. William W. Dodd Copyright 2012 William Dodd Smashwords Edition License Notes Thank you for downloading this free ebook. You are welcome to share it with your friends. This book may be reproduced, copied and distributed for non-commercial purposes provided the book remains it its complete original form. Permission is granted to teachers to reproduce shorter segments of this publication for classroom use. . If you enjoyed this book, please encourage your friends to download their own copy at Smashwords.com. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Your Neurons at Work Chapter 2: Framing Your Thoughts Chapter 3: Putting Your Brain to Work Chapter 4: Tools for Clear Thinking Chapter 5: Food for Thought Chapter 6: The Conscious Mind Chapter 7: A Model of the Mind Chapter 8: Solving Problems Chapter 9: Getting it Right Chapter 10: Managing Your Resources Chapter 11: Clear Thinking and You About the Author Introduction Clear thinking involves learning more, remembering more, making better decisions, finding more satisfactory solutions to a variety of problems, and improving relations with others. The most important concept in Train Your Brain is that thinking skills can be developed and enhanced through directed effort and practice. You can train your brain to think better, just as you can train your muscles to perform specific tasks, such as playing a saxophone or swimming the backstroke. A clear thinker systematically collects data, analyzes information, and makes considered decisions. A clear thinker also communicates effectively and strives to work effectively with others. Thinking clearly on a regular basis is an achievable objective. It does not require a revolutionary approach. Every attempt at clear thinking leads to increased knowledge and improved skills. Each success lays the foundation for more success in the future. As you learn more and start to think more clearly, additional learning becomes easier. With more knowledge, clear thinking becomes a habit rather than a challenge. Over time, the cumulative effect of increased knowledge and clear thinking will lead to systematic improvements in your own health, wealth, satisfaction, and happiness. ### Chapter 1: Your Neurons at Work 1.1 Basic Anatomy of Your Brain 1.2 Your Body’s Communication Systems 1.3 Your Senses Thinking is a wondrously complicated biological process. The basic anatomy of your brain and input from your senses operate together to determine how your mind perceives the universe, and how you think. 1.1 Basic Anatomy of Your Brain Your brain is where all your thinking takes place. So learning a little about the structure and operation of your brain is an appropriate beginning for a book on training your brain to think clearly. The brain is a complex organic system for processing information fed to it by your senses. The structures of the brain contain several billion neurons with a total weight of about 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds). Those neurons require about twenty percent of the blood flow from your heart to keep them supplied with oxygen and nourishment. The brain floats in a cerebrospinal fluid that helps to support its spongy structure and protect it from mechanical shocks. Based on knowledge derived from anatomy, evolutionary theories, and functional characteristics, the brain can be regarded as a composite of three basic substructures. According to Paul MacLean (Laboratory of Brain Evolution and Behaviour of the National Institute of Mental Health), as the human brain evolved primitive structures were successively surrounded by more advanced neural structures. The hindbrain, located at the base of the brain, is its most primitive part and is associated with autonomic functions. The midbrain complex lies above the hindbrain, is more sophisticated, and is associated with our emotions and the formation of memories. The left and right hemispheres of the forebrain form a cap over the midbrain. The forebrain is the most highly evolved component of the brain and is associated with awareness and thinking. (See Figure #1 for a sketch of the basic brain structures.) It is MacLean’s contention that, “We are obliged to look at ourselves and the world through the eyes of three quite different mentalities.” [The human brain] “amounts to three interconnected biological computers [each with] its own sense of time and space, its own memory, [muscle] motor control, and other functions”. Carl Sagan adds, “Each [of these three] brain[s] corresponds to a separate major evolutionary step. The three brains are distinguished neuro-anatomically and functionally, and contain strikingly different distributions of the neurochemicals dopamine and cholinesterase.” Figure #1: A sketch of the basic structures of the brain We also know that the brain has conscious and subconscious modes. While you are reading this sentence part of your brain keeps your heart beating, part keeps your eyes moving across the page, and another part wonders what is for supper tonight. Your brain also has a sleep mode that can create dreams, and it has an unconscious mode to which it can retreat when your brain is injured. Your rational thoughts can be disrupted by emotional concerns, and your emotional concerns can be overridden by your basic needs to breathe, drink, and eat. It is no wonder that it is sometimes a challenge to think clearly. With several levels of functioning, each with conscious and subconscious modes, it is a great advantage to be able to shift mental gears at-will to meet daily demands. 1.1.1 Learning about the Brain There are a number of sources of information about the structure and operation of the brain. Brain injuries Whenever someone experiences a damaging head wound and survives, there is an opportunity to compare any resulting disability with the damaged region of the brain. Historically, the advent of high-speed bullets in the 19th century led to many non- fatal head wounds. Survivors had characteristic impairments when specific parts of the brain were injured. Animal experiments While there are recognized ethical constraints that limit neural experiments on humans, there are as yet few constraints limiting experiments on animals. And since there are many parallels between the structures of human and animal brains, much has been learned from animal studies about how our brains function. Continued experiments on animals reflect our basic ignorance of subtle biological processes. Brain surgery The techniques and procedures for performing successful operations on human brains evolved rapidly during the 20th century. There are no pain sensors in the brain itself and patients are normally restrained but awake during brain surgery. Surgeons can then talk to patients during an operation to confirm that incisions are having the intended effect. During operations to treat patients with severe epilepsy, Wilder Penfield discovered that stimulating specific regions of the brain produced physical sensations. During the early 1950’s, he demonstrated that the sense of touch for each part of the body’s surface is represented on the parietal lobe (see section 1.1.4), and that adjacent parts of the body are represented on adjacent parts of the brain. Penfield also found that the more important and sensitive body regions have proportionally greater parts of the brain assigned to them. He discovered, as well, that stimulation of other regions could elicit particular memories in a patient. In the 1960’s, a new operation was designed to ease the symptoms of severe epilepsy. In this operation the main connection (corpus callosum) between the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the forebrain is severed to prevent future epileptic seizures from spreading across the whole brain. While the operation limited the damage of epileptic seizures, it also led to characteristic deficiencies. Roger Sperry won the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his studies of the subsequent behavioural characteristics of these patients. Brain scans Non-invasive scanning techniques allow the human brain to be studied in action. A variety of scanning techniques have been developed since 1920, when the German physiologist, Hans Berger, first used electroencephalography to study the human brain. Newer techniques can detect activity in smaller regions of the brain over shorter time periods. Here are brief descriptions of some of the common scanning techniques: 1. EEG – Electroencephalography – measures the electrical activity of the brain as detected by electrodes on the surface of the head. 2. MEG – Magnetoencephalography – similar to EEG but it measures magnetic signals. 3. MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging – uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to analyze soft tissue. It can be used on any part of the body, including the brain. 4. CT – Computerized Tomography (or CAT – Computerized Axial Tomography) – converts the information from a MRI into a three dimensional image. 5. fMRI – functional MRI – a newer version of MRI that is much faster (and much more expensive). 6. PET – Positron Emission Topography – requires the injection of a radioactive substance into a patient’s bloodstream. The patient is given a specific mental task to perform and the most active areas of the brain then absorb the most radioactive material. 7. NIRS – Near-Infra-Red Spectroscopy – can be used to assess brain function by detecting changes in blood hemoglobin concentrations that are associated with neural activity. 1.1.2 The Hindbrain The hindbrain is considered the most primitive component of the brain. It is located at the top of the spinal cord, just inside the base of the skull. Its main components are the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum. The medulla is located just at the top of the spinal cord at the lower end of the hindbrain. The medulla controls many autonomic functions including respiration, circulation, and digestion. At the top of the medulla, just under the midbrain, is a small region called the reticular activating system. The reticular activating system is believed to harbour our centre of arousal and motivation. This system acts as a primary filter on all incoming neural signals. Signals are forwarded to other parts of the brain only if the input is deemed significant. The reticular activating system is also involved in maintaining consciousness and regulating sleep. The cerebellum is located at the back of the hindbrain, behind the medulla. It is about the size of a small apple and is divided into left and right hemispheres . Its compact structure contains about fifty percent of the brain’s neurons in only ten percent of the brain’s volume. About 200 million input neurons from the spinal cord pass through the cerebellum. The cerebellum also controls subconscious movements to maintain posture, balance, and co-ordination. The pons is a swelling around the medulla just in front of the cerebellum. It connects the two halves of the cerebellum and manages the switching of signals from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain. It plays a major role in relaying sensory information from the cerebellum to the forebrain. Figure #2: Basic structures of the hindbrain 1.1.3 The Midbrain Complex To simplify the discussions, the term ‘midbrain complex’ has been coined to include the midbrain along with the thalamus and the limbic system. The midbrain is cylinder shaped, about 2 centimetres (cm) in height and 2 cm in diameter. It sits on top of the hindbrain in the middle of the head; approximately level with the bridge of your nose. The midbrain is associated with the pathways for voluntary muscle control, visual system reflexes, and hearing. The thalamus consists of two plum sized lobes just above the midbrain. These left- right lobes provide a system for relaying neural signals between the midbrain and the hemispheres of the forebrain, and act as the brain’s main filter of sensory input. The thalamus is also associated with regulating sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, and mental arousal. The limbic system is an important series of left-right nerve pathways located around the midbrain and under the forebrain. The limbic system is involved in emotional responses such as fear and aggression, mood in general, appetite, and emotional responses to food. The limbic system is also involved in the processing and storage of short-term memory. From an evolutionary point of view, the limbic system is an old structure that can also be found in fish, amphibians, and reptiles – as well as mammals. The limbic system is highly connected with the frontal lobes (see section 1.1.4) and may be the source of emotional satisfaction that can be derived from clear thinking. There is no universal agreement on exactly which organs should be listed as part of the limbic system, but its main components are the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala. The hypothalamus consists of two small left-right structures, each about the size of a bean. The two parts of the hypothalamus reside under the two parts of the thalamus. The primary function of the hypothalamus is to maintain the body’s status quo. It regulates blood pressure, temperature, fluid levels, electrolyte balance, body weight, and appetite. Your hypothalamus sends you a signal to let you know when you are hungry, thirsty, tired, mad, or sad. The hypothalamus is also connected to the pituitary gland, the master regulator of the body’s endocrine (hormone) system. Your hypothalamus works much like the thermostat on a furnace, maintaining key body parameters at appropriate levels. In the short run you may gain or lose a few pounds, but the setting for body weight established in your hypothalamus will eventually bring your body weight back to its former setting. Similar corrective measures initiated in your hypothalamus maintain your body temperature and blood pressure. Figure #3: Basic structures of the midbrain complex The amygdala has a left-right structure with almond shaped components residing just below the hypothalamus. The amygdala is involved with the emotions of aggression, fear, and pleasure. Persons with a large amygdala tend to be more aggressive. Anxiety, autism, depression, narcolepsy, phobias, and schizophrenia are often linked to a malfunctioning amygdala. The hippocampus has a left-right structure in the shape of elongated beans curving towards the back of the brain from the amygdala. The hippocampus plays an essential role in our ability to create new memories of daily events and also influences our ability to access old memories. Research also suggests that the hippocampus plays a role in our ability to form mental maps of our surroundings and to perform spatial tasks. The nucleus accumbens is sometimes considered part of the basal ganglia of the forebrain and sometimes as part of the limbic system. It has sensitive dopamine receptors that respond to intense stimuli, novel stimuli, and pheromones. The nucleus accumbens has been called the pleasure centre of the brain. [...]... minimal time delay You may react emotionally before your forebrain has had a chance to review and consider that same information Once you have reached an emotional conclusion, it is often difficult to re-evaluate that same information on a rational basis MRI scans indicate that once you are emotionally attached to an idea, you exhibit a strong bias when interpreting any new information For example... referring to what is practical and reasonable The more informed you are, the better able you are to make reality checks, and the more valuable this mental anchor becomes Anchor #5: You can search for cause-and-effect Cause-and-effect is a philosophical approach to understanding why things happen the way they do This approach requires a fundamental assumption that there is a reason, or an explanation, for the... Orion arm Beyond the Milky Way, there are billions of other galaxies The nearest galaxy comparable to the Milky Way is the Andromeda galaxy, with a distance of about 2.9 million light-years Even though the Andromeda galaxy contains billions of stars, it is so far away that it appears as just a faint smudge in the night sky Even galaxies tend to occur in clusters The Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxies... you already know about a topic, the harder it is for anyone to mislead or misinform you *** 2.2 The Nature of the Physical Universe Establishing an informed and consistent view of reality is a vital step in laying a foundation for clear thinking If you absorb a wealth of knowledge about the physical universe, integrate that knowledge into a coherent database, and interpret that information with a consistent... environment also determines the modes of expression that are available for your use A culture with a complex language, a tradition of artistic and political expression, and a habit of self-expression fosters creative and philosophical thinking A culture can also deliberately limit your modes of expression Early Puritans and Calvinists were discouraged from dancing and singing Renaissance scholars were... yourself as a freethinking being, but your brain works with evolutionary structures, cultural frameworks, and personal traits that set limits on your thought processes You inherited a brain that is anatomically similar to other human brains Some of your particular behaviour patterns were also inherited from your parents along with the colour of your hair and the size of your feet Some of your learned behaviour... (sympathetic) are dedicated to stimulating organs and muscle action, and other autonomic neurons (parasympathetic) are dedicated to inhibiting the action of muscles and organs The autonomic system can transmit signals to alter the size of your pupils in response to light, change your rate of breathing, alter your heart rate, stimulate muscular contractions in your stomach and intestines, and cause... own making Step back and re-evaluate your objectives Are the potential rewards from your current activities worth the wearand-tear on your psyche? Another strategy for reducing stress is to anticipate challenging situations and prepare to deal with them ahead of time Astronauts spend years practicing the procedures that they will have to carry out after they are launched into in orbit They spend almost... less than a billionth of a second Nuclear events are a million times faster than that From an atom’s point of view, humans are colossal giants and human activity takes place at a glacial pace It is a fundamental theorem in biology that every living body is composed of individual living cells Every human consists of billions of cells organized into tissues and organs We are also inhabited by a host... supernatural – we sacrifice plants, animals, and people to appease the gods, we pray to the gods for forgiveness and for favours, we bow to priests who may communicate directly with the gods on our behalf We like status and power – we are almost always ready to fight to maintain our social status, we are ready to fight to protect our families, we are ready to fight to take advantage of weakness in a neighbouring . systems gather information about your body and your environment, process that information, and then initiate action that will increase your chances for survival. Ultimately, all of your actions are. part of your brain keeps your heart beating, part keeps your eyes moving across the page, and another part wonders what is for supper tonight. Your brain also has a sleep mode that can create. Train Your Brain Build a Framework for Clear Thinking Take Full Advantage of Your Brain’s Exceptional Powers By Dr. William W. Dodd Copyright 2012 William Dodd Smashwords Edition License