INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVESOF DISTANCELEARNINGIN HIGHEREDUCATION  EditedbyJoiL.MooreandAngelaD.Benson           International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education Edited by Joi L. Moore and Angela D. Benson Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Bojan Rafaj Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published March, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education, Edited by Joi L. Moore and Angela D. Benson p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0330-1   Contents  Preface IX Part 1 Distance Education Management 1 Chapter 1 Re-Engineering Open and Distance Learning Institutional Development for Knowledge Society in Africa 3 K. O. Ojokheta Chapter 2 Distance Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: A Conceptual Model 13 Mehran Farajollahi and Nahid Zarifsanaee Chapter 3 Open and Distance Learning in Dual Mode Universities: A Treasure Unexploited 33 Paul Birevu Muyinda Part 2 Distance Education and Teacher Development 51 Chapter 4 Teacher Development Through Distance Education: Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 53 Charles Potter and Gordon Naidoo Chapter 5 Open and Distance Learning for Teachers’ Professional Development: The English in Action (EIA) Model for the Global South 93 M. Mahruf C. Shohel Part 3 Distance Learning Pedagogy 109 Chapter 6 Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 111 Maureen Snow Andrade Chapter 7 Strategically Integrating Blended Learning to Deliver Lifelong Learning 133 John Wall VI Contents Chapter 8 Distance Learning: Modern Approaches to Engineering Education 149 Boris Kruk and Olga Zhuravleva Chapter 9 Assessment Methods of Student Learning in Web-Based Distance Courses: A Case Study 185 Jon R. Hufford Part 4 Distance Learning Students 209 Chapter 10 An Analysis of the Search Skills of Online Graduate Students as the Basis for the Development of Appropriate Instructional Strategies 211 Olabisi Kuboni Chapter 11 The Role of Self-Efficacy, Control Beliefs and Achievement Goals on Learning Among Distance Learners 233 Clarence Ng Chapter 12 Differences and Similarities in Approach Between Classroom and Distance Learning 253 Ingrid Helleve Chapter 13 Distance Learning and the Low-Income Student 273 Angela Benson, Joi L. Moore, Nicole Norfles and Carolyn Starkey Part 5 Distance Learning Educational Tools 297 Chapter 14 Web-Application for Engineering Graphics – An Example of a Distance Learning Tool 299 Lourdes Rubio and Belén Muñoz-Abella Chapter 15 Internet-Supported Multi-User Virtual and Physical Prototypes for Architectural Academic Education and Research 317 Henriette H. Bier   Preface  Thetermdistancelearninghasdifferentmeaningstodifferentpeopleandpopulations. By presenting international perspectives of distance learning, this book embraces all those meaningsandpopulations without givingpreferencetoany.Intodayʹsglobal world where distance providers can address local learning needs, it is important for distance learning practitioners and researchers as well as higher education administrators and faculty to have a broad view of how distance learning is conceptualized,plannedanddelivered. Almost two centuries ago, a form of distance education emerged in which learning activities were sent through postal mail (Spector, Merrill, Merrienboer, & Driscoll, 2008).Whilethisearlymethodofdistancelearningisstillusedinmanyinternational communities, todayʹs distance learning environments also embrace a variety of traditional and emerging technologies, including websites, ebooks, content managementssystems(CMS),podcasts,socialnetworks,mobiledevices,andmore.As distance learningin highereducation evolves to embrace newtechnologies, itis also evolvingtoaccommodatethechangingnatureofhighereducationstudents.Distance learning solutions are now being provided to traditional on‐campus students with needs for courses offered at flexible times as well as to the growing numbers of nontraditional students, those working adults who are going back to college while balancingfamilyandworkresponsibilities. This book embodies the variety of distance learning formats addressed in Moore, Dickson‐Deane, and Galyenʹs (2011) investigation of the terminology of distance learning.Terms such as correspondence educati on or study, open, online or distance learning, and elearning are often used synonymously todescribe a learning environmentwherethestudentandinstructorareseparatedintimeand/orspace.Some term differences emerge from the type of organization, for example higher education and business use distance learning and e‐learning, respectively.Other terms emerge fromthetypesoftechnologiesandlearningactivitiesused,orthemodesandfrequencies of interactions between students and the instructor. Term differences are also noted between countries, such as Europe preferring open learning to describe a form of distanceeducationwhereasdistance,online,andelearninglearningareoftenusedinthe Americas.This book does not propose a common  definition of the terms.Rather, it presentsthedifferentinternat ional perspectivesofwhatisdeemedasdistance learning. X Preface This book is comprised of 15 chapters, written by authors  representing 12 countries, andaddressesissuesofsignificancetodistancelearningpractitioners,researchers,and higher education faculty and administrators.The chapters are organized into five sections.Four chapters comprise Section 1, Distance Education Management.The chapters address topics related to the  planning, administration and management of distance learning programs in higher education. In Chapter 1, Ojokheta (Nigeria) arguesthattheadministrativeandacademicprocessesthatgovernopenanddistance learningprogramsinNigeriamustbere‐engineeredifNigeriaistoreach21 st century goals for development of a knowledge society. In Chapter 2, Farajollahi and Zarifsanaee (Iran) present a data‐based model of effective distance teaching and learning in higher education that responds to the need of countries to develop educationalcapacitytomeetthedemandforhighereducation.InChapter4, Muyinda (Uganda) explores the challenges and benefits of managing and administering Open and Distance learning programmes in dual mode universities, using Makerere Universityasanexample. ThetwochaptersinSection2,DistanceEducationandTeacherDevelopment,present approaches to teacher professional de velopment delivered via distance learning technologies.In Chapter 5, Potter and Naidoo (South Africa) describe the 17‐year evolution of the South African Radio Learning Programme. The program was designed to improve the quality of teaching in primary schools by targeting the developmentof Englishlanguagecompetencies inthejunior primaryphase, through the medium of interactive radio. In Chapter 6, Scohel (United Kingdom) presents a proposal to use open and distance learning to provide teacher professional developmenttomeetthecrisisofaninadequatelyqualifiedteacherpoolintheGlobal Southregion. The four chapters that comprise Section 3, Distance Learning Pedagogy, present effective teachingand learning approaches in  adistance environment.In Chapter 7, Andrade(UnitedStates)showshowadistancecoursedesignandteachingframework based on self‐regulated learning can be used to promote learner success in online distance English language courses. In Chapter 8, Wall (United States?) presents strategies and processes for employing blended learning environments to deliver lifelong learning. In Chapter 9, Kruk and Zhuravleva (Russia) describe learning models that promote self‐directed, personal‐oriented and student‐centered teaching, specifically in online engineering education.In Chapter 10, Hufford (United States) examinesstudentassessmentmethodssuitableforWeb‐basedcourses. Eachofthefourchaptersin Section4,DistanceLearningStudents,describetheresults ofresearchstudiesthataddressedfactorsandissuesrelatedtothestudentexperience in distance learning courses and programs. In Chapter 11, Olabisi (West Indies) analyze the efforts of students enrolled in a Graduation Orientation course at using onlineresourcestoconstructanannotatedbibliography.Thegoalwasthegeneration of instructional strategies to assist students in developing more effective  skills for identifying, gathering and using information from online sources.In Chapter 12, Ng [...]... university Distance learning prepares the way for that most of educational goals like independent learning, self-directed learning, learning in every place and not dependent to a specific time, participation learning and education, self-assessment and fast presenting of the feedback from previous studies manifested to be more ascertainable 14 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education. .. believe in an educational programming that is based on cooperative and group learning and reinforces active learning in the learner Active learning, cooperation and working in the group are also important features of learning through technology As a result, combining these features in distance learning determines an effective learning environment mentioned in this study 3.4 Mission of higher education. .. features of effective distance education and their theorists 20 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education With respect to the common elements in effective distance education guidelines and principles, and fundamental learning theories and for removing present barriers and lacks of current distance education, the following features of distance education should be considered in order... important role in this ever increasing knowledge-driven global economy, its scope and importance have to change significantly This paper is, therefore, written, as an awakening call for open and distance learning policy makers and practitioners in Africa to begin the re-engineering 4 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education process of open and distance learning institutional... of 21st century organization Similarly, in the academic processes, open and distance learning institutions must begin to have new perception of learning in line with the constructivist perspective rather the objectivist perspective where learners are not involved in the real act of learning but are given ready view of social reality by the tutors 6 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in. .. movement of this mode of learning from industrialized model to post-industrialized) has necessitated the infusion of the principles of constructivism in instructional design in open and distance learning Constructivism is a fundamental departure in thought, from that of the traditional objective-rational approach, about the nature of knowing, learning, and teaching In terms of learning, the constructivist... viewpoint of learning and the learner’s satisfaction, the profits of educational organization and attaining to the organizational goals or the satisfaction of faculty members Certainly, the learner and learning are the bases of Distance Education institutions; effective educating and learning is a continuous procedure and does not happen at once Boettcher (2007) says that planning an effective learning. .. followings Distance Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: A Conceptual Model 17 3.1 The theoretical bases of distance learning Distance learning is a complicated global phenomenon that is associated with various terms, meanings, theoretical concepts and models With studying the distance learning theories, the independence theory of Moore & Wedemeyer and the interaction and communication theory of. .. exploratory  study  of the lived experiences of low‐income and working students enrolled in postsecondary  distance learning.     The two chapters in Section 5, Distance Learning Educational Tools, describe distance learning development  projects  that  support  the  learning of science  and  engineering  topics.  In Chapter 15, Rubio and Muno‐Abella (Spain) describe the development and  use  of 2D  and ... Learning in Higher Education 5 Reengineering in the administrative processes of ODL As canvasses above, reengineering in the administrative processes of ODL involves moving the operations of ODL institutions from the dictates of 20th century organization to the 21st century organization The detailed examination of characteristics of 20th and 21th century’s Distance Education Institutions in Africa becomes . distance learning policy makers and practitioners in Africa to begin the re-engineering International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education 4 process of open and distance learning. not involved in the real act of learning but are given ready view of social reality by the tutors. International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education 6 5. Reengineering in. INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES OF DISTANCE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION  EditedbyJoiL.MooreandAngelaD.Benson           International Perspectives of Distance Learning in