Impacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of Vietnam

Impacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of Vietnam

UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY

PHAM XUAN QUYET

IMPACTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THEWORKPLACE ON JOB BURNOUT AND LABOUR

TURNOVER, MODERATED BY

PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT: EVIDENCEFROM THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY OF

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGUNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY

PHAM XUAN QUYET

IMPACTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THEWORKPLACE ON JOB BURNOUT AND LABOUR

TURNOVER, MODERATED BY

PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT: EVIDENCEFROM THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY OF

MAJOR: BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

CODE: 9340101

Supervisor: Associate Professor Doctor HO VIET TIEN

THESIS OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYIN MANAGEMENT

Ho Chi Minh City – 2024

DECLARATION OF AUTHENTICITY

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the dissertation entitled "Impacts of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace on Job Burnout and Labour Turnover, Moderated by Psychological Empowerment: Evidence from the Hospitality Industry of Vietnam" is the authentic and original work of Pham Xuan Quyet, a PhD student at UEH University, under the supervision of Associate Professor Doctor Ho Viet Tien.

Throughout the research process, every effort has been made to ensure the integrity and originality of the study The topic was carefully selected based on my genuine interest and passion, and the research methodology, including data collection, analysis, and interpretation, was conducted following the highest academic standards and ethical principles.

The dissertation represents the culmination of extensive research, critical thinking, and scholarly inquiry The findings and conclusions presented in this work result from the original contributions and insights of Pham Xuan Quyet, supported by the guidance, mentorship, and academic expertise of Associate Professor Doctor Ho Viet Tien and other international and Vietnamese researchers.

Furthermore, all sources of information and references utilized in this dissertation have been duly acknowledged and cited following the established academic conventions and ethical guidelines I affirm that this dissertation is a product of academic rigour, intellectual honesty, and scholarly dedication, and it contributes to the existing body of knowledge within the field of organizational behaviour and human resource management, particularly in the context of the hospitality industry of Vietnam.

Pham Xuan Quyet

PhD Candidate

UEH University, HCMC, Vietnam

At the culmination of this arduous academic journey, it is with profound gratitude that I extend my sincerest appreciation to the individuals and institutions who have contributed to the successful completion of my doctoral dissertation on the topic "Impacts of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace on Job Burnout and Labour Turnover, Moderated by Psychological empowerment: Evidence from the Hospitality Industry of Vietnam."

First and foremost, I express my most profound appreciation to the leadership, faculty, and staff of the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH) and the Postgraduate School of UEH University for providing an intellectually stimulating and nurturing academic environment The unwavering support, resources, and opportunities extended to me have been instrumental in shaping my academic and research endeavours I am incredibly grateful to Associate Professor Doctor Ho Viet Tien, Dean of the Postgraduate School at UEH University, whose guidance, encouragement, and scholarly insights have been invaluable throughout my doctoral studies His mentorship has been a source of inspiration, and his unwavering support has played a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of my research.

I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to Miss Dang Thi My Ngan and Mr Nguyen Duy Khang, esteemed executives at UEH University, for their administrative support and encouragement and for fostering a conducive academic environment for doctoral scholars I would love to express my gratitude to Dr Ngo Quang Huan, the esteemed Dean of the School of Business at UEH University His visionary leadership, scholarly guidance, and unwavering support have been instrumental in shaping my academic pursuits Dr Huan's dedication to fostering academic excellence and his commitment to nurturing a vibrant research ecosystem has been a source of inspiration throughout my doctoral studies I am also profoundly thankful to Ms Le Thi Tinh, a member of the faculty of secretary at UEH University, for her invaluable assistance, administrative support, and unwavering commitment to facilitating the logistical aspects of my academic journey Her dedication and efficiency have been pivotal in ensuring the smooth progression of my research endeavours.

Furthermore, I express my sincere appreciation to Dr Hoang Cuu Long from the School of International Business and Marketing at UEH University Dr Long's scholarly expertise, insightful feedback, and intellectual guidance have been instrumental in shaping the methodological and theoretical underpinnings of my research His mentorship and scholarly contributions have significantly enriched my academic pursuits and have been pivotal in the successful completion of my doctoral dissertation.

I am indebted to the esteemed PhD lecturers at UEH University, whose expertise, guidance, and constructive feedback have significantly enriched my academic journey Their scholarly mentorship, intellectual exchanges, and dedication to academic excellence have been pivotal in shaping my research acumen and literary pursuits Furthermore, I extend my gratitude to the faculty members and research staff at UEH University, whose dedication to academic excellence and scholarly contributions have been a source of inspiration and intellectual stimulation.

I extend my sincere gratitude to Dato Professor Elizabeth Lee, the CEO of Sunway Education Group, for her unwavering support and encouragement throughout my academic journey Professor Lee's visionary leadership and commitment to academic excellence have been a source of inspiration Her guidance and support have been instrumental in shaping my scholarly pursuits and have provided me with invaluable opportunities for academic growth and professional development.

I am deeply thankful to Associate Professor Dr Daniel Chong Ka Leong and Lecturer Vijaya Malar Arumugam at the School of Hospitality and Service Management, Sunway University in Malaysia Their academic support, scholarly insights, and collaborative spirit have been invaluable in shaping the theoretical and empirical foundations of my research Their mentorship and guidance have contributed significantly to the intellectual rigour and depth of this study I am incredibly grateful for their collaboration in co-authoring a scientific journal on this research area.

It is fortunate to receive love from my family, whose unwavering support and encouragement have been the cornerstone of my academic journey My heartfelt thanks to my mother, Tran Thi Thuy, whose love, sacrifices, and belief in my aspirations have been

a constant source of strength Her resilience and unwavering support have been the guiding light that has propelled me forward in pursuit of my academic goals I am also grateful to my sister and my nephews for their understanding, encouragement, and unwavering belief in my endeavours Their love and support have been a source of inspiration throughout my academic pursuits I am also deeply thankful to my friends, whose camaraderie, encouragement, and moral support have been invaluable Their unwavering belief in my abilities and their enduring friendship has been a source of encouragement during the most challenging phases of my doctoral journey Their support has been a testament to the power of friendship and has provided me with the strength and resilience to overcome obstacles and pursue academic excellence.

I extend my sincere appreciation to all the hotels that graciously supported and facilitated the completion of my dissertation Their willingness to provide access to valuable resources, expertise, and insights has been instrumental in enriching the empirical foundation of my research The collaboration and support from these esteemed establishments have not only enhanced the scholarly depth of my study but have also contributed to the advancement of knowledge within the hospitality industry I am profoundly grateful for their generosity, cooperation, and commitment to advancing academic inquiry within the field of hospitality Their support has been invaluable, and I extend my heartfelt thanks for their contributions.

Lastly, I am deeply thankful to all the individuals who, directly or indirectly, have contributed to my academic and intellectual growth Your support, guidance, and encouragement have played an indispensable role in shaping the trajectory of my research and scholarly pursuits.

With sincere gratitude,

Pham Xuan Quyet

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1 Pham, X.Q & Ho, V T (2024) Genders and sexual harassment: the

perception of Vietnamese employees via Sexual Experience Questionnaire.

International Journal of Economics and Business Research, 27(2) https://doi.org/ 10.1504/IJEBR.2023.10042867 (Scopus Q3)

2 Quyet, P X., Tien, H V., & Arumugam, V M V (2023) Sexual harassment at

work and labour turnover via job positions: a qualitative study of serviceindustry employees in Vietnam International Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies,

19(1) 145–171 https://doi.org/10.21315/ijaps2023.19.1.7 (Scopus Q2)

3 Pham, X Q & Ho, V T (2021) Sexual orientations and sexual harassment:

Evidence from Vietnamese urban workers The 3rd Asia Conference on

Business and Economic Studies (UEH) Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xii

ABSTRACT 1

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH 2

1.1 Overview of Chapter 1 2

1.2 Backgrounds of the research 2

1.2.1.Myths about sexual harassment in the workplace 3

1.2.2.#Metoo movement, sexual harassment and its related issues in reality 4

1.3 Gaps from previous studies 5

1.3.1.The situation of sexual harassment in the workplace 5

1.3.2.Job burnout: from physical to mental burdens 15

1.3.3.The global issue of labour turnover: a problem of the hospitality industry 18

1.3.4.The dilemma of psychological empowerment at work 20

1.7 The novelty of the research 26

1.8 The importance of the research 28

1.8.1.For theoretical perspectives 28

1.8.2.For managerial perspectives 28

1.8.3.For practical perspectives 29

1.9 Research ethics 30

1.10 Structure of the thesis 31

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEWS 33

2.1 Introduction to Chapter 2 33

2.2 Research concepts 33

2.2.1.Sexual harassment in the modern world: from daily life to workplaces 33

2.2.2.Burnout and its adverse outcomes 37

2.2.3.Labour turnover via sexual harassment: from intention to decision 41

2.2.4.Psychological empowerment in the perception of sexual harassment, jobburnout and labour turnover at work 43

2.2.5.Sexual harassment, job burnout and labour turnover in the

2.3.2.Conservation of Resources Theory (COR) 52

2.3.3.Social cognitive theory (SCT) 56

2.3.4.Cultural dimensions theory (CDT) 58

2.4 Hypothesis development and conceptual framework 62

2.4.1.The relationship between sexual harassment and labour turnover 62

2.4.2.The relationship between sexual harassment and job burnout 67

2.4.3.The relationship between job burnout and labour turnover 70

2.4.4.The moderating effects of psychological empowerment 72

3.3 Research procedure, samples, and questionnaires 81

3.3.1.Procedure and samples 81

3.3.2.Overviews of research questionnaires 87

3.3.3.Qualitative method 93

3.3.4.Quantitative method 97

3.4 Pilot Quantitative result 100

3.4.1.Data collection procedure 100

3.4.2.Demographic results 100

3.4.3.Cronbach’s alpha test results for Pilot quantitative research 102

3.4.4.EFA Test results for Pilot quantitative research 102

3.4.5.Final research questionnaires 106

4.2.3.Evaluation of the scales by Cronbach’s alpha results 113

4.2.4.Evaluation of measurement model by PLS-SEM 115

4.2.5. Evaluation of the structural model and research hypothesis 121

4.3 Discussion of research results 127

4.3.1.Gender harassment and its impacts on job burnout and labour turnover 127

4.3.2.Unwanted sexual attention and its impacts on job burnout and labourturnover 130

4.3.3.Sexual coercion: different perception towards job burnout and labourturnover 131

4.3.4.Job burnout and labour turnover in the hotel industry 134

4.3.5.The moderating effect of psychological empowerment 136

4.4 Summary of Chapter 4 141

CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,

LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FUTURE RESEARCH 142

5.1 Introduction to Chapter 5 142

5.2 Conclusion of the research 142

5.3 Implications and recommendations 145

Objectives of the research 204

Concepts and relationships of variables in the research 206

The moderating effect of psychological empowerment in the workplace 215

Ideas of experts in objectives, concepts, variables and proposed model 219

Questions for interview 220

APPENDIX 4: SUMMARY OF PILOT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (INTERVIEW) 223

Interview results 223

Evaluation of measurement scales and translations 235

APPENDIX 5: LETTERS FOR PERMISSION: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (BOTH PILOT TEST AND OFFICIAL RESEARCH) 245

APPENDIX 6: ADJUSTED QUESTIONNAIRES 247

APPENDIX 7 LIST OF ADJUSTED QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PILOT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 254

APPENDIX 8: FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE FOR OFFICIAL QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH 261

APPENDIX 9: CRITERIA 267

APPENDIX 10: SUMMARY OF EXAMINING MODERATING EFFECTS 269

APPENDIX 11: LIST OF HOTELS IN VIETNAM FOR DATA COLLECTION 270

APPENDIX 12: FINAL RESULTS 271

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

10 MBI-HSS The Maslach burnout inventory for the human services survey 11 TIS-6 Turnover Intention Scale

13 PES Psychological empowerment scale

15 SEM Structural Equation Modelling

18 SQRTAVE Square Root of Average Variance Extracted 19 ICC Inter-Construct Correlations

21 LGBTQ+ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (or"questioning")

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Stages in doing Pilot and Official tests 83 Table 3.2 Demographic information in the Pilot test 101 Table 3.3 Cronbach’s Alpha results for Pilot Quantitative research 102 Table 3.4 EFA results for Pilot quantitative research 103

Table 4.3 The final Cronbach’s Alpha results of all questionnaires 114

Table 4.5 The result of Composite Reliability (CR) 117 Table 4.6 The result of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) 118

Table 4.10 The result of R2 and R2 adjusted index 122

Table 4.12 The result of direct relationships and hypothesis 123 Table 4.13 The results of moderation effects of psychological empowerment on different variables. 125

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 The results of hypothesis testing of H1 (a,b,c), H2 (a,b,c), and H3 124 Figure 4.2 The results of moderation effects from H4a to H4c 126 Figure 4.3 The results of moderation effects from H4d to H4g 127

Sexual harassment and its prevalence in the workplace make it difficult for employees to contribute to and commit to companies Labour turnover caused by sexual harassment is hazardous to the long-term development of any service organisation since when good employees leave, it increases needless expenditures for businesses The hospitality industry has high labour turnover and high risks of sexual harassment, which influence the entire industry's sustainability Sexual harassment, however, remains an issue masked by cultural viewpoints because it varies from one country to another based on cultural and cognitive perspectives Even though the workplace in Vietnam is relatively secure, Vietnamese employees struggle to find how to respond and change employment through job burnout and the perception of psychological empowerment The thesis, with five chapters, indicates the significant impact of sexual harassment on job burnout and labour turnover with the moderating effect of psychological empowerment The theories, including Conservation of Resources Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, and Cultural Dimensions Theory, are simultaneously utilised to help fill the gaps of the previous studies and enhance the reliability of the research framework Although sexual harassment is challenging to expose and examine, the method used in this thesis is the quantitative method Through different stages in both qualitative and quantitative methods, data were collected in luxury hotels in Vietnam and analysed in Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) by SMART PLS 4 With the results from empirical research, the author proved that sexual coercion is the main problem in sexual harassment, impacting both job burnout and labour turnover, and psychological empowerment also influences the relationships among the three variables The thesis also gives recommendations for hotels in Vietnam to construct safe and friendly working environments to develop sustainably in terms of managing people.

Keywords: Sexual harassment, Job burnout, Labour turnover, psychological

empowerment, hotels, Vietnam

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH1.1.Overview of Chapter 1

Chapter 1 introduces the foundation of research problems related to this thesis.This chapter has nine (09) parts, including (1) the backgrounds of the research, (2) gapsfrom previous research, (3) research objectives, (4) Research questions, (5) the researchsubjects and scopes, (6) the novelty of the research, (7) the importance of the research,(8) research ethics, and (9) the structure of the thesis.

1.2.Backgrounds of the research

The intricacies of workplace dynamics have been a focal point of numerous studies, with a particular emphasis on phenomena that impede the optimal functioning of an organisation This research investigates three interconnected parameters significantly affecting workplace cohesion and productivity: sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Diez-Canseco et al (2022), Acquadro Maran et al (2022), and Heymann et al (2023) indicate that sexual harassment is a pervasive issue that plagues various industries across the globe It represents an egregious violation of an individual’s rights and dignity, with profound negative implications on the victim’s psychological health and job performance Despite numerous legal provisions and organisational policies to curb this vice, sexual harassment remains a daunting challenge and creates job dissatisfaction (Acquadro Maran et al., 2022; Julios, 2022) Job burnout, one of the results of sexual harassment in the workplace, has evolved from being a mere byproduct of high-stress working environments to being recognised as a critical factor impairing personal well-being and job performance It is characterised by emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment, often resulting from prolonged occupational stress (Halbesleben, 2006; Kim et al., 2020; Lu & Gursoy, 2013) The severe consequences of burnout, reduced efficiency, and health problems make it an essential subject of inquiry (Edú-Valsania et al., 2022).

Moreover, the interplay between sexual harassment and job burnout warrants an in- depth exploration, as the former may be a potential stressor contributing to the latter

(Alrawadieh et al., 2022) With the negative impact of job burnout, employees may voluntarily leave their organisations, or so-called “labour turnover” Labour turnover refers to the rate at which employees leave an organisation and are replaced by recruits (Bolt et al., 2022) Ghani et al (2022) state that high turnover rates can harm an organisation’s performance due to the associated costs of recruitment, training, and loss of organisational memory, and it can disrupt the social and communication structures within the team, leading to decreased morale and productivity (Michael & Fotiadis, 2022).

Therefore, identifying the links between sexual harassment, job burnout, and employee turnover provides insights into the complex dynamics within the workplace Notably, a hostile work environment characterised by sexual harassment may fuel job burnout (Maslach & Leiter, 2022), which, in turn, could lead to higher turnover rates (Baquero, 2023) Conversely, high turnover rates might cultivate a work environment more susceptible to harassment and burnout due to the lack of stability and continuity in staff relationships These potential associations underscore the need to understand these variables and their interplay comprehensively.

The thesis aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by analysing the intricate relationships between these parameters This investigation’s findings will offer a theoretical understanding of these phenomena and provide evidence-based suggestions for policy development and intervention strategies to promote a healthier and more productive working environment.

1.2.1 Myths about sexual harassment in the workplace

Fitzgerald (2017) shows that the most noticeable idea of sexual harassment in the workplace is commonly referred to as myths, a term that mainly originated in anthropology and sociology, which is described as conceptions used to explain the world and that are generally accepted while being demonstrably incorrect In other words, myths explain things that would otherwise be unknown, unacceptable, or unexplained Sexual harassment in the workplace contains four myths.

The first and foremost myth about sexual harassment is that it only happens to women (Goh et al., 2022; Loukaitou-Sideris & Ceccato, 2022) Nonetheless, sexual

harassment can happen to anyone, regardless of their gender (Murphy-Oikonen & Egan, 2022; Nazareno et al., 2022) While women are more commonly targeted, men and individuals of LGBTQ+ communities can also experience sexual harassment It is essential to recognise that both men and women can be victims and perpetrators of sexual harassment (Cortina & Areguin, 2021).

The second myth about sexual harassment is that it is always overt and explicit Sexual harassment can manifest in various ways (Galdi & Guizzo, 2021) While some involve direct physical or verbal advances (Ford et al., 2021), others may involve subtle forms of harassment, such as inappropriate comments, gestures (Jones & Wade, 2020), or unwelcome advances (Tews et al., 2019) It is essential to understand that the impact of sexual harassment depends on the perception of the victim, and even seemingly minor incidents can have a profound effect.

The third myth states that victims of sexual harassment are responsible for the harassment Nonetheless, the responsibility for sexual harassment lies entirely with the perpetrator, not the victim (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018) No one should be blamed or held responsible for the inappropriate actions or behaviours of others Victims are not at fault for experiencing harassment, regardless of their clothing, behaviour, or other factors (Maswandi et al., 2022; Wood et al., 2022) The focus should be on addressing and preventing harassment rather than questioning the actions or choices of victims.

The fourth myth is that reporting sexual harassment always leads to immediate resolution Hart (2019) indicates that reporting sexual harassment can be challenging, and resolution may not always be prompt or satisfactory Victims may face various obstacles, including fear of retaliation, disbelief, lack of support, or inadequate organisational responses It is crucial to improve support systems, encourage reporting, and ensure appropriate measures are in place to address complaints effectively.

1.2.2 #Metoo movement, sexual harassment and its related issues in reality

The #MeToo movement is a global social movement that emerged in October 2017 to raise awareness about the widespread prevalence of sexual harassment and assault,

particularly in the workplace (Gibson et al., 2019) The movement encourages survivors to share their experiences and aims to combat the culture of silence and stigma surrounding these issues.

The campaign was initially created by activist Tarana Burke, who began using the phrase “Me Too” in 2006 to support and empower survivors of sexual violence, particularly women of colour (Daigle, 2021) However, the movement gained significant momentum and visibility in October 2017 when actress Alyssa Milano tweeted, “If you’ve been sexually harassed or assaulted, write ‘me too’ as a reply to this tweet.” This tweet went viral, with millions using the hashtag #MeToo to share their experiences or express solidarity with survivors (Kaufman et al., 2021) The #MeToo movement quickly spread across various social media platforms, with survivors from different countries, industries, and backgrounds sharing their stories (Irshad & Samad, 2021; Tranchese, 2023) The movement exposed the issue’s magnitude and created a sense of solidarity among survivors, showing that sexual harassment and assault are pervasive and systemic problems affecting individuals from all walks of life (Bongiorno et al., 2020; Rivara et al., 2019) These allegations and subsequent legal actions against influential individuals fueled public discussions and demands for change The #MeToo movement has profoundly impacted public discourse (Peleg-Koriat & Klar-Chalamish, 2020), increasing awareness (Castle et al., 2020), accountability (Zhang et al., 2020), and conversations about consent (Clarke- Vivier & Stearns, 2019), power dynamics (Kovach, 2020), and gender equality (Reyes- Menendez et al., 2020) It has created a platform for survivors to be heard, challenged societal norms, and prompted policies, laws, and workplace culture changes to address sexual harassment and assault more effectively (O’Mochain, 2020).

1.3.Gaps from previous studies

1.3.1 The situation of sexual harassment in the workplace

Sexual harassment in the workplace is a complex and pervasive issue that victimises individuals across various industries, professions, and demographics (Brunner & Dever,

2014) While it is essential to underscore that anyone can become a victim of sexual harassment, certain groups have been identified as more vulnerable due to various socio-cultural and structural factors Women are disproportionately affected, with research suggesting that they are more likely to experience sexual harassment than their male counterparts (Camargo et al., 2017; Quick & McFadyen, 2017) This gender disparity can be attributed to entrenched patriarchal norms that objectify women and devalue their contributions, leading to an environment conducive to harassment (Bongiorno et al., 2020) Moreover, Ram (2018) shows that individuals in lower-ranking positions or those in jobs historically dominated by the opposite sex are at greater risk Herein, power dynamics play a crucial role, with those in positions of power often exploiting their status at the expense of those who are subordinate or in the minority.

According to Shields et al (2021), young workers, mainly those new to the workforce, are another group frequently victimized They may lack the experience or confidence to navigate workplace dynamics effectively, making them easy targets for harassers Similarly, individuals from marginalised groups, including ethnic minorities and LGBTQ+ individuals, are more prone to sexual harassment due to societal prejudice and discrimination (Klein & Martin, 2021; Roscigno, 2019; A Schuyler et al., 2020; Sears et al., 2021) These individuals often confront a double burden, as they must contend with sexual harassment and discrimination based on their identity Furthermore, temporary workers (Jacobs et al., 2015; Shaw et al., 2018), contractors (Valantine et al., 2022), or those in precarious employment conditions (Reuter et al., 2020) are vulnerable as they may fear losing their jobs or suffer retaliation if they report incidents of harassment This fear is amplified in industries that lack robust worker protections or where there is a significant power imbalance between employers and employees.

In the context of why individuals become victims of sexual harassment, the issue is deeply rooted in power dynamics (Quick & McFadyen, 2017), cultural norms (McDonald, 2012; Wamoyi et al., 2022), and structural inequities (Minnotte & Legerski, 2019) Those in power often use harassment to assert dominance and control over others, particularly in hierarchical organisations Cultural norms and societal attitudes that normalise or trivialise

sexual harassment also contribute to its prevalence For instance, workplaces that tolerate sexist jokes, objectification, or gender stereotyping create an environment where sexual harassment can thrive Similarly, structural inequities, such as gender and racial disparities in leadership positions, can perpetuate a culture of harassment by reinforcing power imbalances.

The complex interplay of personal, organisational, and societal factors makes specific individuals more susceptible to sexual harassment (Schuyler et al., 2020; Sears et al., 2021; Zurbrugg & Miner, 2016) However, it is essential to note that the responsibility for sexual harassment lies solely with the harassers and the systems that enable them As such, addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach that empowers not only potential victims and encourages reporting (Cheng & Hsiaw, 2022; Jacobson & Eaton, 2018) but also promotes cultural and structural changes within organisations (Hennekam & Bennett, 2017) to prevent harassment in the first place It includes cultivating a culture of respect and equality (Johnson et al., 2018), implementing effective anti-harassment policies (Quick & McFadyen, 2017), and holding perpetrators accountable regardless of their position or status within the organisation (Sadler et al., 2018) We can only create safer, more inclusive workplaces for all by tackling the problem at its roots.

Perpetrators of sexual harassment in the workplace are individuals who engage in unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile or intimidating work environment (Pina et al., 2009) These individuals may include employees (Davis et al., 2023; Mathews et al., 2019b), managers (Basile et al., 2020; Minnotte & Legerski, 2019), or customers (Kundro et al., 2022).

Moreover, sexual harassment is a form of gender-based violence (Jatmiko et al., 2020; Latcheva, 2017) that can have severe and long-lasting effects on the victims and the overall work environment (Bondestam & Lundqvist, 2020; Høgh et al., 2021) Thomas and Kopel (2023) indicate that perpetrators of sexual harassment often exert power and control over their victims, utilising their authority or influence to exploit and demean others One common characteristic of perpetrators of sexual harassment is a sense of entitlement and a

belief in their right to objectify or harass others (Loxton & Groves, 2022) They may hold sexist attitudes, reinforce gender stereotypes, and view their targets as objects of sexual gratification rather than as colleagues or professionals (Serrano-Bernal, 2023) Moore and Mennicke (2020) prove that perpetrators often display a lack of empathy and disregard for the feelings and well-being of others, focusing solely on their desires and self-interest In some cases, perpetrators may perceive their behaviour as harmless or even as a form of flirting, failing to recognise the impact of their actions on the victims (Pina et al., 2009).

Bell et al (2018) demonstrate that perpetrators of sexual harassment in the workplace may also use intimidation and coercion tactics to maintain control over their victims They may use threats of retaliation, such as demotion, termination, or denial of promotions, to silence the victims and prevent them from reporting the harassment Additionally, perpetrators may create a hostile work environment by spreading rumours, derogatory comments, or engaging in verbal or psychological abuse (Espelage et al., 2016) It can contribute to a climate of fear and silence, making it difficult for victims to come forward and seek support (Bendixen & Kennair, 2017; Stubbs-Richardson et al., 2018).

Quick and McFadyen (2017) indicate that sexual harassment in the workplace is a pervasive issue that has severe implications for both individuals and organisations based on different reasons One of the primary arguments is that it occurs due to power dynamics It is a multi-faceted dimension that includes both official and perceived power Official power refers to the hierarchical structure within an organisation where individuals in higher positions have more control than those in lower positions (Bakker & de Vries, 2021; Hessels et al., 2017; Pinion et al., 2017) On the other hand, perceived power refers to an individual who has influence over others, which can derive from factors such as charisma or personal connections (LePine et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016) Tinkler and Zhao (2020) prove that power can be misused to exploit or dominate others, leading to sexual harassment An individual in a position of power may feel entitled to act without consideration for the rights and feelings of those with less power This sense of entitlement and disregard for others can manifest as sexual harassment, as the aggressor uses their

power to coerce, intimidate or otherwise exploit their victim It is not to say that all individuals in positions of power will engage in sexual harassment, but rather that the power dynamics within an organisation can create conditions in which sexual harassment is more likely to occur.

The second main reason for sexual harassment in the workplace is the perpetuation of discriminatory and sexist attitudes (Taylor et al., 2018) Shi and Zheng (2020) argue that despite advancements in gender equality, a persistent cultural undercurrent still views women as objects or inferior to men This cultural narrative, which often goes unnoticed or unchallenged, can infiltrate the workplace and influence the behaviour of its members Darke (1990), Sundaram and Jackson (2018), and Henry and Flynn (2019) state that sexual harassment often manifests these attitudes, serving to degrade, humiliate, and objectify women It can occur in several ways, from blatant acts such as unwanted sexual advances to subtler forms of discrimination like belittling comments or inappropriate jokes (Marín et al., 2021; Mills & Scudder, 2023) Furthermore, these attitudes can also contribute to a culture of silence around sexual harassment, where victims feel unable or unwilling to report incidents for fear of not being believed, being blamed, or facing retaliation (Ford et al., 2021; Spiliopoulou & Witcomb, 2023) This culture of silence can further perpetuate the problem, as it allows perpetrators to act with impunity and discourages victims from seeking help or redress.

The third reason for sexual harassment in the workplace, as stated by Ram (2018), is the lack of effective policies and enforcement mechanisms Organisations may have formal procedures to prevent and address sexual harassment Still, if these policies are not enforced, or employees are not aware of them, they will do little to deter potential harassers Furthermore, policies focusing merely on compliance without addressing the underlying issues of power dynamics and discriminatory attitudes are unlikely to result in significant change (Carstensen, 2016) Sadler et al (2018) said that effective sexual harassment prevention requires transparent and enforceable policies and a commitment from leadership to create a respectful and inclusive culture It includes regular training on what constitutes sexual harassment and how to respond to it, establishing clear procedures for

reporting and investigating complaints, and ensuring that perpetrators are held accountable for their actions Without this commitment, policies and practices will likely be ineffective and may even contribute to a culture of complacency and silence around sexual harassment.

Workplace sexual harassment is a universal concern, yet cultural contexts can significantly influence perceptions and interpretations Cultural norms and values shape understanding of what constitutes appropriate behaviour, and therefore, the threshold for what is considered sexual harassment can vary across cultures (Pina et al., 2009) According to Mishra and Stair (2019), in patriarchal cultures, traditional gender roles can normalise power imbalances, leading to a higher tolerance for sexual harassment In such societies, unwelcome sexual advances may be dismissed as “normal” behaviour, making it less likely to be reported and more difficult for victims to seek redress (Merkin & Shah, 2014) On the contrary, in cultures emphasising gender equality, sexual harassment is typically more easily identifiable and less tolerated (Choi, 2021) However, cultural dichotomies can also exist within a society due to ethnicity, religion, or socioeconomic status, leading to varied perceptions of sexual harassment (Berdahl & Moore, 2006) Moreover, the cultural stigma associated with being a harassment victim can deter individuals from reporting incidents, contributing to underreporting and the perpetuation of harassment Thus, a culturally sensitive approach is critical in addressing sexual harassment and fostering a safe and inclusive work environment (Marcus et al., 2020; Welsh, 1999).

Over time, sexual harassment in the workplace has come under worldwide scrutiny, as it presents a significant barrier to gender equity and respect for human rights However, the views and responses to this issue vary significantly across cultural contexts, influenced by diverse sociopolitical systems, religious beliefs, and historical backgrounds (Boyer, 2022; Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018; Minnotte & Legerski, 2019) According to Cassino and Besen‐Cassino (2019), in the United States, cultural viewpoints concerning sexual harassment in the workplace have evolved significantly over the past few decades, primarily due to shifts in societal attitudes and changes in legislation The U.S was one of

the first countries to legally recognise and define sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Bishop et al., 2021; Holland & Cortina, 2016) However, despite these legal protections, cultural barriers persist For instance, the deeply ingrained societal norms perpetuating gender inequality can contribute to victim-blaming attitudes and a reluctance to accept the gravity of the issue High-profile cases, such as those revealed by the #MeToo movement, have raised awareness and sparked societal dialogue but have also unveiled the problem’s pervasiveness Moreover, the individualistic culture in the U.S., while promoting personal rights and freedoms, can sometimes isolate victims, making it challenging for them to seek support (Clarke, 2020; Jones & Wade, 2020; Stockdale et al., 2020) Additionally, the power dynamics in many American workplaces, where hierarchical structures dominate, can deter victims from reporting incidents, mainly when the harasser is in a position of power (Clarke et al., 2016) In contrast, the United Kingdom has developed a robust legal framework and solid societal attitudes against workplace sexual harassment (Collier & Raney, 2018) The Equality Act 2010 provides comprehensive protection against such behaviour, and the U.K government has been active in implementing policies that encourage safe and respectful workplaces (Fell & Dyban, 2017; Wintemute, 2016) However, cultural viewpoints present particular challenges The British culture’s traditional emphasis on politeness and the desire to avoid “making a fuss” (Culpeper et al., 2019; Mills & Kádár, 2011) can inhibit victims from reporting incidents Furthermore, Krook (2018) reports that despite progressive societal norms, there can be an acceptable tolerance for “banter” in some U.K workplaces, which can blur the lines between good behaviour and harassment (Hill & Marshall, 2018; Quigg et al., 2022).

Meanwhile, in Thailand, a Southeast Asian country, the cultural perspectives on sexual harassment in modernisation are influenced by traditional norms and rapid modernization (Newman et al., 2021; Suriyasarn, 2016) Despite the country’s progress in women’s rights, traditional gender roles and societal expectations often create barriers to recognising and addressing sexual harassment Thai culture’s emphasis on harmony and non-confrontation can deter victims from reporting incidents for fear of creating conflict

or disrupting workplace relationships (Noonin, 2017; Samthong, 2022) Furthermore, “kreng jai” - a social norm that encourages deference to seniors and authorities (Areemit et al., 2021; Hilderbrand, 2020)- can make it difficult for victims to speak out against harassers in positions of power According to Puchakanit and Rhein (2022), Thailand has laws against sexual harassment Still, enforcement is often weak, and societal attitudes can doubt the credibility of victims, particularly when they challenge potent figures.

In India, cultural attitudes towards sexual harassment in the workplace are deeply influenced by the country’s patriarchal social structure (Sambaraju, 2020) Despite legal protections offered by the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013, many cases go unreported Factors contributing to this include social stigma, fear of retaliation, and the cultural expectation that women should prioritise family honour over personal well-being The deeply entrenched notion of ‘izzat’ or honour often dissuades victims from reporting incidents, as it could be seen as bringing shame to the family (Sonkar et al.) Furthermore, in many parts of India, women are expected to conform to traditional norms of modesty, and violations of these expectations can lead to victim-blaming (Sangwan & Thakre, 2018) The hierarchical nature of Indian society, emphasising deference to authority, further complicates the issue, as it can discourage victims from voicing out (Gupta & Garg, 2020).

Vietnam, a Southeast Asian nation, represents a complex interplay of cultural, social, and institutional factors that contribute to the perception and response to sexual harassment in the workplace (Binh, 2017) According to Truong et al (2017), Vietnamese society is rooted in Confucian values, emphasising family honour, social harmony, and respect for authority These entrenched values can create a cultural barrier to acknowledging and addressing personal issues (Luu et al., 2009) The notion of “saving face,” prevalent in Vietnamese culture (Nguyen, 2015), can deter victims from reporting harassment due to fear of embarrassment, stigma, or damaging their family’s reputation Additionally, hierarchical power dynamics, another critical aspect of Confucianism, often discourage subordinates from challenging or questioning their superiors, making it difficult

for victims to speak out against harassers higher up in the organisational structure (Truong et al., 2017).

Moreover, traditional gender norms and stereotypes further exacerbate the problem Nguyen et al (2020) state that gender roles in Vietnam often relegate women to subordinate positions in the workplace, making them more susceptible to sexual harassment Women are frequently expected to endure such behaviour silently, as speaking up might be seen as challenging the status quo and disrupting the workplace (Imron et al., 2017; Yount et al., 2016) The societal expectation that women should be modest and not draw attention to themselves can also lead to victim-blaming, where the victims of harassment are held responsible for the incident, questioning their conduct, attire, or behaviour (Huong & Ly, 2021; Phan, 2023).

Furthermore, Uyen (2021) indicates that the lack of clear legal definitions and regulations concerning sexual harassment in Vietnamese labour laws makes the issue more challenging The ambiguity and lack of clarity in legal provisions can lead to underreporting, as victims may be unsure about their rights or the procedures for reporting harassment Also, the lack of institutional support systems, such as confidential reporting mechanisms or practical anti-harassment training in many Vietnamese workplaces, adds to the problem (Phan, 2023) Employers often lack the awareness or resources to develop and implement effective policies to prevent and respond to sexual harassment.

In Vietnam, where traditional gender roles and norms are still prevalent, sexual harassment in the workplace is a particularly pressing issue, and female workers have experienced some form of sexual harassment in the workplace (Phan, 2023) Nguyen and Rydstrom (2022) suggest that sexual harassment in the workplace is a significant problem in Vietnam and that it can harm employees' job performance because the worse the performance is, the higher the level of job stress will be Although Vietnam has made significant strides in promoting gender equality, cultural barriers rooted in traditional values, gender norms, and inadequate legal and institutional frameworks continue to hinder the recognition and redressal of sexual harassment in the workplace Addressing these

issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes cultural change, legal reform, and institutional capacity building.

One of the critical issues is the reliance on self-reporting mechanisms to ascertain the prevalence of sexual harassment According to Boot (2016), many individuals experiencing harassment never report the incidents to their superiors, primarily due to fear of retaliation, stigma, or disbelief in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US (2016) Consequently, self-reporting data may significantly underestimate the actual prevalence of sexual harassment, thereby influencing policy and intervention strategies that are based on such data.

Another issue is the ambiguity in the definition of sexual harassment While it is generally accepted to include unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature, contextual interpretation varies significantly across different cultures, legal frameworks, and individual perceptions (McDonald, 2012) This ambiguity can lead to inconsistencies in identifying and reporting incidents, compromising evaluation methods’ reliability and validity.

The use of anonymous surveys is a standard method for assessing sexual harassment However, these surveys also present issues They depend heavily on the respondents’ honesty and willingness to disclose sensitive information, which could be influenced by social desirability bias (King & Bruner, 2000) Additionally, while necessary for encouraging participation, anonymity may result in false reporting or misuse of the tool, further skewing the data.

Investigations into allegations of sexual harassment can also be problematic Often, these investigations are carried out internally, leading to potential conflicts of interest The impartiality of the research might be compromised if it is in the organisation’s best interest to downplay or dismiss the allegations Moreover, organisational culture can play a significant role in influencing the outcomes of such investigations In a culture that does not emphasise respect and equality, victims might not be believed, and perpetrators may not face practical consequences (Berdahl et al., 2018).

Furthermore, victim interviews, a crucial part of any investigation, have their challenges The emotional toll on victims, the potential for re-traumatisation, and the difficulty in recalling events can all affect the reliability of these interviews Additionally, it is critical to ensure that investigators receive proper training to conduct sensitive interviews in a manner that is both supportive and effective.

The methods for examining and evaluating sexual harassment in the workplace are plagued by underreporting, definition ambiguity, survey limitations, investigative impartiality, and the challenges associated with victim interviews These problems call for a more comprehensive and nuanced approach to studying and addressing sexual harassment beyond the prevalent methods Designing and implementing strategies that encourage reporting, standardising definitions, improving survey methodologies, ensuring objective investigations, and providing better support for victims during interviews are crucial Such improvements can lead to a more accurate understanding and more effective prevention of sexual harassment in the workplace.

1.3.2 Job burnout: from physical to mental burdens

The American psychologist Freudenberger (1970) first used the phrase "job burnout" to describe a state of ongoing physical and emotional tiredness that is frequently accompanied by emotions of depersonalisation, alienation, and a sense of ineffectiveness at work Job burnout can seriously affect personal and professional lives and is not just a passing feeling of exhaustion or apathy (Maslach & Leiter, 2022) It is a chronic, crippling condition According to Maslach and Jackson (1984), burnout is characterized by three main dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment Emotional exhaustion refers to feeling emotionally overextended and depleted of one's emotional resources Depersonalisation is an unfeeling and impersonal response towards one's service, care, treatment, or instruction recipients Reduced personal accomplishment refers to a decline in one's feelings of competence and achievement.

Job burnout has a complex aetiology, with several factors influencing its start and development Choy and Wong (2017) indicate that chronic occupational stress that has not

been effectively managed is one of the leading causes These include an excessive workload, a lack of control over work circumstances, insufficient incentives for effort, a lack of workplace community, a lack of fairness, and opposing values Personality qualities and mental processes like pessimism and perfectionism can make someone more prone to burnout (Bianchi & Schonfeld, 2016; Thakre & Sebastian, 2021) Frustration and, eventually, burnout can result from a mismatch between an employee's efforts and the rewards they receive, whether monetary, in the form of advancement possibilities or recognition (Coll et al., 2019; Gong et al., 2021) Additionally, a lack of social support can make people feel more alone and stressed, leading to burnout at work and in their personal lives (Winnubst, 2017).

Job burnout is a serious problem that can significantly impact individual employees and organisations In recent years, there has been growing interest in the level of job burnout in different countries worldwide A study by Luceño-Moreno et al (2022) shows higher levels of job burnout in Asian countries such as Japan, China, and India because of long working hours, high levels of stress, and a lack of work-life balance Those factors can pressure employees to work long hours and not take time off for relaxation In contrast, Alexandrova-Karamanova et al (2016) show that European countries have lower levels of job burnout, for instance, in the Netherlands, Denmark, or Sweden, since they have shorter working hours, more generous vacation policies, and a stronger emphasis on work-life balance High levels of job burnout lead to negative consequences for both individuals and organisations For individuals, job burnout can lead to physical health problems, such as fatigue, headaches, and sleep problems (Madigan et al., 2023) or mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety (Yu et al., 2021) For organisations, according to Spielberger and Reheiser (2020), job burnout can lead to decreased productivity, increased absenteeism, and higher turnover rates.

Job burnout is a severe problem in the hospitality industry (Kim et al., 2007) Several factors contribute to job burnout in the hospitality industry Hospitality workers are often required to work long hours (Biyan Wen et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2021b), deal with

demanding customers (Moyeenudin & Anandan, 2020), and meet demanding deadlines (Codling et al., 2022) These factors create feelings of exhaustion, anxiety, and depression (Grobelna, 2021) Another factor contributing to job burnout in the hospitality industry is the lack of control hospitality workers have over their work (Chela-Alvarez et al., 2021; Wong & Chan, 2020) Besides, Wong et al (2021a) state that hospitality workers are often required to follow strict rules and procedures, which can lead to frustration and helplessness Grobelna (2021) also proves that the lack of support from management can also contribute to job burnout in the hospitality industry Hospitality workers often feel like they are not appreciated or valued by their managers, leading to isolation and loneliness.

Job burnout can have numerous negative consequences for hospitality workers, according to Salama et al (2022), such as decreased job satisfaction, increased absenteeism, and lower productivity Besides, Melamed et al (2006) state that it improves health problems like heart disease, stroke, and diabetes As a result, it significantly negatively impacts the hospitality industry Burnout increases the turnover rate (Biyan Wen et al., 2020), which can be costly and damage the reputation of hospitality businesses (Wang et al., 2020a).

Although burnout at work has been researched in different aspects, and its negative results are anticipated, the main reasons contributing to the formation of job burnout are unclear Besides, the existing research on job burnout in the hospitality industry has primarily been conducted in Western contexts There is a need for more studies that explore this issue in different cultural and regional settings, for instance, in Asian countries, as management practices and work-life balance norms can vary Furthermore, the intersection of gender, race, and other social categories can significantly influence experiences of job burnout However, there is a lack of research examining how these intersecting identities influence burnout in the hospitality industry For example, women and racial or ethnic minorities often face additional stressors in the workplace, which could exacerbate burnout Understanding these dynamics could help develop more inclusive and effective management strategies to solve related issues and retain valued employees.

1.3.3 The global issue of labour turnover: a problem of the hospitality industry

Labour turnover, the rate at which employees leave an organisation and are replaced (Allen, 2012; Colvin, 2019), is a critical concern for businesses worldwide due to its potential impact on organisational performance and productivity Several causes contribute to this phenomenon, often divided into voluntary and involuntary turnover (An, 2019; Shepherd et al., 2020).

According to Zhang et al (2019), employees quit voluntarily when dissatisfied with their jobs, lack workplace engagement, have poor work-life balance, have limited professional growth prospects, or have inadequate remuneration and benefits Job dissatisfaction can stem from a myriad of sources, including poor management practices (Hight et al., 2019), lack of recognition (Thant & Chang, 2021), or a negative workplace culture (Tran, 2021) Arora and Wagh (2017) state that work-life balance issues often arise when employees struggle to manage their professional responsibilities alongside personal commitments, leading to burnout and eventual departure Limited career advancement opportunities can cause employees to seek growth elsewhere, while inadequate compensation and benefits can make other job offers more attractive.

According to Shaw et al (1998) and Rubenstein et al (2019), involuntary turnover is when the organisation decides to terminate the employment relationship, typically due to poor performance, misconduct, or organisational restructuring Poor performance can result from a lack of skills or motivation, while misconduct can involve violations of company policies or ethical standards (Goodhew et al., 2008) Organisational restructuring, according to Barrick et al (1994), Wang and Sun (2020), and Lin and Huang (2021), including downsizing or outsourcing, can also lead to involuntary turnover as roles are eliminated or changed Moreover, external factors such as economic conditions, labour market trends, and industry-specific factors can influence turnover rates (Al-Suraihi et al., 2021; Ayodele et al., 2020) For instance, during periods of economic growth, employees may feel more confident about seeking new opportunities, leading to increased voluntary turnover.

Conversely, involuntary turnover may rise during economic downturns due to cost- cutting measures Labour market trends, such as a shortage of skilled workers in specific industries, can also contribute to turnover as employees are lured away by more attractive offers (Ramlawati et al., 2021) Labour turnover is a complex issue influenced by various internal and external factors Understanding these factors is crucial for organisations to develop effective retention strategies and maintain a stable, productive workforce.

The hospitality industry is a labour-intensive industry (Chang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022), and employee turnover is a significant challenge for businesses in this sector (Basnyat & Clarence Lao, 2020b; Dwesini, 2019; Nickson, 2007) In the United States, according to Frye et al (2020), the annual turnover rate for restaurant workers is 73%, more than double the average turnover rate for all industries (30%) This high turnover rate can have numerous negative consequences for hospitality businesses, including increased costs, decreased productivity, and lower customer satisfaction (Choi, 2006; Iverson & Deery, 1997; Khan et al., 2021) Several factors contribute to the high turnover rate in the hospitality industry, such as low wages (Jolly et al., 2021), long hours of working (Ghani et al., 2022), inconvenient shifts on weekends and holidays (Yu et al., 2022), or poor work- life balance (Andrade et al., 2021) According to Abo-Murad and Abdullah (2019), the high turnover rate in the hospitality industry increases costs, including hiring and training new employees and overtime costs It also decreases productivity because new employees are often less productive than experienced employees, and it can take time to learn the ropes (Al-Suraihi et al., 2021; Dalgic & Akgunduz, 2022) Kurdi et al (2020) and Mohsin et al (2023) point out that high turnover can also lead to lower customer satisfaction since experienced and knowledgeable employees serve them when experienced and knowledgeable employees serve them.

Despite the extensive research on labour turnover in the hospitality industry, there are still significant gaps in understanding the nuanced relationship between management practices, workplace harassment, and employee attrition Much of the existing literature has focused on general factors contributing to turnover, such as job satisfaction, compensation, and work-life balance, with less emphasis on the role of management

practices and workplace harassment While some studies have explored these areas, they often lack a comprehensive approach, failing to consider the interplay between management behaviour, harassment, and the subsequent impact on employee turnover.

Furthermore, most of these studies are cross-sectional, providing a snapshot of the situation at a particular time but not capturing these relationships' dynamic and evolving nature over time Another significant research gap lies in the lack of studies that explore the differential impact of management practices and workplace harassment on various demographic characteristics of the hospitality industry A diverse workforce characterizes the sector, and it is plausible that the experiences and responses to management practices and harassment vary across different groups For instance, the experiences of part-time workers, who constitute a significant portion of the hospitality workforce, may differ significantly from those of full-time employees Similarly, employees' experiences from different cultural backgrounds, age groups, or genders may also vary Yet, the current research often treats the hospitality workforce as a homogenous group, potentially overlooking essential nuances.

This gap is particularly concerning given the increasing recognition of the importance of diversity and inclusion in the workplace Therefore, future research should address these gaps, providing a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of labour turnover in the hospitality industry.

1.3.4 The dilemma of psychological empowerment at work

Psychological empowerment in the workplace remains a multifaceted construct that has garnered significant attention within organisational research It encapsulates a sense of self-efficacy, autonomy, meaningfulness, and impact (Spreitzer, 1995) Despite its recognised importance for enhancing employee motivation and performance (Zhang & Bartol, 2010), the operationalisation of psychological empowerment and its effects on work outcomes continue to present a dilemma for both researchers and practitioners One area of contention is the degree to which psychological empowerment is a state or a trait characteristic Joo et al (2019) also conceptualised empowerment as a cognitive state characterised by the four dimensions above.

However, subsequent research has suggested that dispositional factors may also play a crucial role, implying that psychological empowerment could also be considered a trait (Seibert et al., 2011) This distinction has significant implications for the development of interventions aimed at increasing empowerment If empowerment is state-like, situational changes may be effective, but if it is trait-like, interventions might need to focus more on selection and training processes Another dilemma concerns the mediating mechanisms through which psychological empowerment influences work outcomes (Spreitzer, 1995) proposed that empowered employees experience increased intrinsic motivation, leading to higher performance Yet, other scholars have identified organisational support, job characteristics, and leadership styles as potential mediators (Maynard et al., 2014) The relative contributions of these mediators are not fully understood, and this complicates the design of organisational interventions aimed at fostering employee empowerment.

Further complicating the issue is the cultural context in which psychological empowerment is studied Research has primarily been conducted within Western contexts, with findings potentially reflecting Western values of individualism and autonomy (Liden et al., 2000) The extent to which these findings are generalisable to collectivist cultures, where group harmony and conformity may be more highly valued, remains an open question Researchers must consider cultural nuances when examining psychological empowerment in non-Western settings (Aydogmus et al., 2018) Lastly, the measurement of psychological empowerment has raised methodological concerns While Spreitzer's Empowerment Scale (1995) is widely used, the dilemma lies in whether self-reports can accurately capture the construct The subjective nature of empowerment could lead to biases in self-report measures, potentially inflating relationships with other constructs (Schermuly et al., 2013) It has led to calls for the use of multi-rater or objective performance measures to validate self-reported empowerment levels.

According to Huertas-Valdivia et al (2019), psychological empowerment in the hotel industry is a critical factor that shapes employees' experiences and reactions to various workplace dynamics, including the perception and tolerance of sexual harassment Psychological empowerment can be understood as the process through which hotel

employees gain a sense of control over their work environment, fostering a belief in their competence, autonomy, and ability to make a significant impact on their work (Llorente-Alonso et al., 2023; Spreitzer, 2007) In this context, the four dimensions of psychological empowerment—meaning, competence, autonomy, and impact—can serve as buffers against the harmful effects of sexual harassment by altering employees' perceptions and responses to such incidents When hotel employees feel a high level of psychological empowerment, they may be more likely to recognise and label inappropriate behaviour as sexual harassment due to a stronger sense of self-worth and awareness of their rights (Ozer & Schotland, 2011) Empowered employees, feeling competent and self-determined, are more likely to take proactive steps against harassment, such as reporting the behaviour or confronting the perpetrator (Fitzgerald et al., 1997) Conversely, a lack of psychological empowerment may contribute to a more permissive environment where sexual harassment might be perceived as a normative aspect of the work culture, particularly in industries like hospitality, where gendered customer service expectations can blur the lines of acceptable behaviour (Stander & Rothmann, 2010) Employees who do not feel empowered may lack the confidence to speak up against harassment or may fear retaliation, leading to underreporting and perpetuation of the issue (Fitzgerald et al., 1997).

Moreover, the relationship between employees and management plays a crucial role in psychological empowerment and its influence on perceptions of sexual harassment Supportive management practices that foster employee empowerment—such as providing autonomy, resources, and opportunities for skill development—can create an environment where sexual harassment is less tolerated, and victims feel more supported in reporting incidents (Kang et al., 2020).

In conclusion, psychological empowerment at work encompasses a broad range of implications for employee well-being and organisational effectiveness However, the dilemmas surrounding its conceptualisation as a state or trait, mediating mechanisms, cultural universality, and measurement issues pose challenges to the advancement of empirical research and the practical applications of empowerment theory in the workplace Future research must address these dilemmas through methodologically robust studies that

extend across diverse cultural contexts and consider both individual and situational factors influencing psychological empowerment.

1.4.Research objectives

1.4.1 General objective

The thesis examines and evaluates the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in hospitality in Vietnam The study also assesses the moderating effects of psychological empowerment in awareness, perceptions, and reactions towards sexual harassment and its outcomes in the hotel industry The result will suggest relevant theoretical implications from the collected and analysed data for future research It also has a managerial impact on hotels to sustain and develop a robust human resource foundation, increase employees’ motivations and commitment, promote future financial development, and, more importantly, preserve a clean and healthy working environment for hotels in Vietnam.

1.4.2 Objectives in details

There are three main detailed objectives for the thesis including:

Objective 1: Examining and evaluating the relationships among sexual

harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Objective 2: Examining and evaluating the moderating effects of psychological

empowerment in the three relationships: (1) sexual harassment to job burnout, (2) job burnout to labour turnover, and (3) sexual harassment to labour turnover.

Objective 3: Providing theoretical and managerial implications for the hospitality

industry’s future sustainability.

1.5.Research questions

The following research questions are to fulfil the research objectives of this thesis:

Question 1: How negative are the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout,

and labour turnover in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 2: Is there any negative direct influence of sexual harassment on labour

turnover and indirect effect from the mediating roles of job burnout in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 3: Does psychological empowerment have negative moderation roles in the

relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 4: What implications could be withdrawn from the research to apply for both

academic and natural working environments in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

1.6.Research subjects and scopes

1.6.1 Subjects

The subjects of the thesis are employees working in the luxury hotel industry in Vietnam They had experienced sexual harassment in the workplace at least once, felt burnout and decided to change their jobs within 12 months The subjects can be from different nationalities, but they must work in hotels in Vietnam, regardless of 4 or 5-star hotels, in various departments, including front of the house (such as front desk, food and beverages, concierge or customer service) and back of the house (like housekeeping, sales and marketing, finance, and likewise) The age ranges vary from 18 years old to retirement age of 65 All heterosexual and homosexual groups are welcome to take part in the research.

1.6.2 Scopes

Theoretical scope: The thesis utilises three main theories to explain the

relationships of variables, which are Conservation of resource (COR), Social Cognitive theories (SCT), and Cultural Dimension Theory (CDT) Besides, the new concept of Psychological empowerment is considered a moderator to justify the result of each relationship The central idea of sexual harassment in the workplace represents one of the main external reasons for job burnout Labour turnover is a concept that represents individual action resulting from sexual harassment.

Research scope: The research is conducted with employees working in 4 and 5

hotels or equivalent in Vietnam in international or domestic brands The selected hotels are located in different cities in three regions: the North, the Central and the South Vietnam Employees in various locations will vary their perception of sexual harassment at work and come out with several reactions The participants are working or have experience working

in three positions: management, supervisory, and staff It ensures different viewpoints and outcomes regarding the issue of sexual harassment.

Timing scope: The research thesis was conducted through many adjustments

during implementation The official thesis implementation time is from 2021 to 2023 The interview with experts will take place in June 2023, and the time to collect survey questionnaires (both pilot and official survey) will be from July to October 2023.

1.6.3 Research methods

The research utilises qualitative research and quantitative research methods While the qualitative method is solely used in adjusting a research model and measurement scales, quantitative research is the primary method used in Pilot tests and official research.

Sexual harassment and its influences in the workplace are too sensitive to be discussed publicly; therefore, it is ideal to discuss it privately with in-depth interviews (Nguyen, 2013b, p 110) The qualitative research method assists the research model and the research scale amendment The interviews will be jotted down and recorded based on the questions or topics However, the order and ways of asking questions may depend on the context and characteristics of the interviewees The results from in-depth interviews will be collected and adjusted to suit the Vietnamese context and will later form a draft scale for the pilot test and official quantitative research.

The study uses descriptive and inferential statistics to fulfil different purposes Descriptive statistics are used to analyse the study sample Inferential statistics are applied to test the model and research hypotheses to determine the relationships among concepts in the research model.

The Pilot Test (n = 50): Data from the pilot test is analysed with Cronbach Alpha

to examine validity and reliability before being tested with Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to observe the convergent and discriminant values of the variables in the scale Only

valid variables will be represented in the official survey using the quantitative research method.

The official research (n = 270): The thesis conducts a survey using a final

questionnaire The scales will be retested for reliability, validity, convergent, and discriminant by Cronbach’s Alpha and EFA before being evaluated by analysing the PLS- SEM software’s measurement and linear structural models The PLS-SEM method is essential because this method allows for handling a small sample size The study used the PLS Bootstrapping technique with a repeated sample size of 5,000 observations to test the research hypothesis.

The general research framework: sexual harassment will significantly influence

labour turnover directly Job burnout is also an undesirable result of sexual harassment and a mediating part leading to labour turnover Psychological empowerment has moderating effects on relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

1.7.The novelty of the research

Research regarding sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in the workplace has been conducted separately, yielding numerous valuable findings However, the interconnections among these three critical issues remain largely unexplored, thus creating gaps in the existing literature and opportunities for upcoming research This thesis proposes an innovative perspective, emphasizing the correlation and causal relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Sexual harassment in the workplace is a pervasive issue that has been extensively studied, but its impact on job burnout and labour turnover is under-researched The proposed research aims to delve into this less-explored area, i.e psychological empowerment, hypothesizing that sexual harassment contributes to job burnout and increases labour turnover This triadic relationship, if established, would provide deeper insights into the psychological and social phenomena in the workplace, enriching the existing body of knowledge.

Job burnout, characterized by exhaustion, depersonalisation, and decreased professional efficacy, is a frequent concern in today’s fast-paced work environments While

the literature has linked job burnout with high turnover rates, the role of sexual harassment as a contributing factor to this burnout-turnover link is yet to be thoroughly examined By investigating the potential influence of sexual harassment on job burnout, the research will contribute a new dimension to understanding burnout drivers and their subsequent impact on labour turnover.

Labour turnover, often an organisational challenge, has been linked with direct and indirect costs such as recruitment, training, and loss of productivity While the links between job burnout and turnover have been established, the role of sexual harassment as a precipitating factor in this dynamic has not been thoroughly explored The thesis will, therefore, not only yield insights into the root causes of turnover but also provide actionable strategies for organisations to mitigate this costly issue.

The proposed research will be novel in its methodology as well Most previous research in the same area preferred using qualitative methods, but this thesis implements the quantitative method By employing a quantitative approach, the study will provide a more nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover This methodological novelty will allow us to capture the depth and breadth of employees’ experiences and provide more comprehensive insights.

The implications of this novel research are multifold For academia, it will fill a significant gap in the literature, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of the interplay between sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover Understanding these dynamics could lead to more effective interventions for organisations to reduce sexual harassment, curb job burnout, and decrease labour turnover The findings could inform policymakers of legislative and regulatory measures to protect employees from sexual harassment and job burnout.

This study aims to contribute significantly to academic knowledge, practical organisational strategies, and public policy by exploring an under-researched area Drawing from psychology, sociology, and business studies, this interdisciplinary approach offers a comprehensive and innovative perspective on the complex issues of workplace dynamics.

1.8.The importance of the research

1.8.1 For theoretical perspectives

Firstly, the theories used in this thesis are summarised and flexibly applied to sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover in Vietnam Three theories, Conservation of Resources theory (COR), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and Cultural dimension theory (CDT), are systemised to concentrate on the problem of sexual harassment in the hospitality workplace in Vietnam It assists hospitality organisations in realising, thinking, and solving the issues of sexual harassment rationally.

Secondly, the research model is formed by theories and initially tested in Vietnam with expected results, including:

(1) The Sexual Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) is suitably applied to the questionnaire on Gender discrimination in Vietnam’s context Sexual harassment in the workplace negatively impacts employees’ well-being and partially creates the intention to leave the organisation.

(2) Sexual harassment is a global issue, but it varies from one country to another The SEQ is constructed by Fitzgerald et al (1995) in Western contexts, so it may not be entirely suitable for Vietnam Therefore, experts have adjusted the SEQ questionnaire to ensure the correct results are collected The author has adjusted, supplemented, and tested the scale The concepts are turned into variables to suit Vietnam’s context.

(3) Researchers can assess the relationships among the mentioned theories and reexamine the above relationships in other areas.

1.8.2 For managerial perspectives

Research results assist hotel managers, employees in hospitality, institutions, and policymakers (at all levels of government) in predicting, preventing, and protecting victims from sexual harassment and labour turnover Additionally, it improves the level of safety in the working environment, which can be used as an advantage for Vietnam to attract more talented employees to work, commit and dedicate themselves to the organisation.

For hotel managers: Because workers are a source of value and profits for every

business, employers and associated human resource departments must understand their