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Index Note: Figures and Tables are indicated by italic page numbers, footnotes by suffix “n[X]” where “X” is the note number (e.g. “32n[21]” is note 21 at the foot of page 32) Acapulco (Mexico), risk category 12 accelerated reconstruction assistance for 160–1 disadvantages 225 acceleration 267n[3] see also peak ground acceleration acceleration spectrum, effect of soil conditions 254 acceptable risk 367–9 lowest level considered 368–9 active control systems 279 adobe (earthen brick) masonry 264 strengthening of 294 vulnerability functions 329, 330 aerial reconnaissance, after earthquake 99, 100 afghanistan economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 7, 13 aftershocks 137–8 danger to rescuers 112, 138 Agadir earthquake (Morocco, 1960) 7 agencies, coordination in emergency 92–4 agriculture losses 143, 145–6 recovery of 145–6 Ahmedabad Study and Action Group (ASAG), building programme 360 alarm systems 80 Alaska earthquake (USA, 1964) 236nn [3&5] Albania economic losses 13 fatalities 5, 13 Algeria economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 13 alternative risk transfer 63–4 Ancash earthquake (Peru, 1970) 7, 126–7 animal behaviour, earthquake prediction based on 77 anisotropy of rocks, as prediction indicator 76 Argentina economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 13 Armenia earthquake (former USSR, 1988) 7, 32n[21], 67, 105n[13], 153, 339 Ashkhabad earthquake (former USSR, 1948) 7, 117n[28] Assisi (Italy) Basilica of St Francis 149n[6], 305, 305, 306 strengthening of buildings 308 Athens earthquake (Greece, 1999) 67 attenuation relationships 246–8 Australia, fatalities 6 average return periods, estimation of 73 Avezzano earthquake (Italy, 1915) 7 awareness programmes 87 –8, 189 Azerbaijan, fatalities 6 404 INDEX background noise effect on survivor audibility 110, 111 reduction of 111 Bangladesh, fatalities 5 base-isolation techniques 278, 303 beams and columns, stiffness 276 Beijing (China), risk category 12 Belgium fatalities 6 see also Li ´ ege Belice earthquake (Sicily, Italy) 22 Bhopal disaster (India, 1984) 126 Bing ¨ ol earthquake (Turkey, 1971) 154, 245 blood supplies and transfusion centres 122 body seismic waves 17 Bogota (Colombia), risk category 12 Bolivia, fatalities 5 Bolu (Turkey), strengthening of buildings 300, 301 Boston (USA) cost per life saved 372 death risk probability 369 vulnerability comparison 371 braced frames 273, 274 Brazil, fatalities 6 brick masonry buildings damage distributions 327, 328 vulnerability functions 328, 329, 330 Bucharest earthquake (Romania, 1977) 67, 237n[6] budgeting for losses and mitigation 220–2 builder training 228–30, 293, 294–5, 360–1, 363 building certification 209 building codes consultation about 214 earthquake protection provisions 172, 174, 185, 282, 354 –5 education/training about 214–15 emergency 155 enforcement of 205–6 review of 214 strictness 213–14 see also International Building Code building collapse see collapse of buildings building construction techniques, and self-protection measures 31–2, 172 building control 355–7 recommended new provisions in Turkey 356 building improvement grants 208 building improvement programmes 226–30 builder training off-site 228–30 communal building programmes 227–8 incentive programmes 227 reasons for failure 285 technical assistance on-site 228 building materials, for reconstruction 161, 164–5 building response to earthquakes 267–71 Building for Safety project 293, 359 building stock data 194 building stock management 206–10 and land-use planning 193 building types 263–7 and vulnerability assessment 318–19 vulnerability classification 264–5 buildings alterations to existing 277 improving earthquake resistance of 263–309 natural frequency 197, 237, 269 natural period 197, 269, 271 separation between 277 ways of resisting earthquakes 272–4 Bulgaria, fatalities 5 Burma economic losses 13 fatalities 5, 13 Bursa (Turkey) 1970 earthquake 237n[6] 1885 earthquake 170 reconstruction after 169–70 planning of new suburbs 170, 196 businesses losses by 46–7, 57–8 see also corporate businesses buttressing 300, 302 Buyin Zhara earthquake (Iran, 1962) 7 Campania earthquake (Italy, 1980) 67, 99, 105n[13], 163, 236n[2] Canada, fatalities 5 canine search 111 INDEX 405 capital infusion model of reconstruction 156, 157 capital markets, effects on 44, 52, 53 Caracas earthquake (Venezuela, 1967) 237n[6] casualties 3–7 estimation of 338–42 M-parameters used 339–41 see also fatalities casualty assessment 119–20 catalogue compilation 238–42 catastrophe bond 64 catastrophe losses 61–4 catastrophe models 63 catastrophe perils (insurance) 59 catastrophe reinsurance 60–1 cellular phone networks 96, 191 cement–lime–sand mortar 291 central business districts, recovery of 148–9 characteristic earthquakes 73–4 chemical monitoring, in prediction technique 77 Chernobyl disaster (former USSR, 1986) 126 Chiba (Japan), risk category 12 Chichi earthquake (Taiwan, 1999) 67 Chile 1985 earthquake 237n[7] economic losses 13, 67 fatalities 4, 7, 13 see also Chillan; Valparaiso Chillan earthquake (Chile, 1939) 7 China death risk probability 368 economic growth 63 economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 7, 13 see also Beijing; Haicheng –Yingkou; Kansu; Shanxi; Tangshan; Tianjin; Tsinghai; Xi’an; Yunnan cities decentralisation of 200 deconcentration of 198, 200 limiting densities in new settlements 199–200 reconstruction of 152–6 (re)design of 153, 167, 168, 170 reducing densities in 198–9 see also urban clients, persuading of need for protection 223 coastal earthquakes 78, 128 codes of practice for engineered buildings 281–5 improving 354–5 in Quetta (Pakistan) 172, 355 collapse of buildings fatalities due to 8–10, 338 making safe after 135–7 speed of rescue 103–4 survival times of trapped victims 101–3 collateral hazards 123–8, 235–6, 343–6 Colombia economic losses 13, 67 fatalities 5, 13 see also Bogota; Papayan; Quindio commercial premises 148 –9 emergency function 203 role in recovery 149, 203 communal building programmes 227–8 communications systems business use 190–1 in emergency 96–7, 204 for evacuation warnings 80 role in recovery 204 community construction projects 182 community consultation, for reconstruction 225 community groups 180–3 community-initiated projects 182–3, 227–8 compression seismic waves 17 compulsory earthquake insurance 215, 261, 356–7 computer mapping, for emergency management 97, 98 concrete block masonry, vulnerability functions 329, 330 conflagrations 124 congregation points 81 construction control 213–17 construction industry and reconstruction 162–5 training in earthquake resistant techniques 218, 228–30 construction standards, improving 353–8 consumer confidence, effects on 43–4 consumer demand, as means of upgrading buildings 208–9 cooking facilities 133 core houses, in incremental reconstruction 161–2 406 INDEX Corinth earthquake (Greece, 1981/1982) 82, 298, 339 corporate businesses emergency planning by 189–90, 192 hazardous facilities/plants 185 information protection 191–2 insurance cover 58 losses by 47, 53, 57–8 non-structural hazards 187–9 protection objectives 185–7 recovery of 147 self-sufficiency 190–1 structural safety of buildings 183–5 see also insurance companies corporate risk management 183–92 cost–benefit analysis alternative protection strategies evaluated using 364–5 protection objectives prioritised using 186 cost-effectiveness criterion 365–7 cost per saved life 366 in strengthening of buildings 371, 372 Costa Rica economic losses 13 fatalities 5, 13 costs of earthquakes 13, 37–69 annual loss rate 37 loss per fatality 13 reason for need for data 41–2 San Francisco example 37–8 types of loss costs 39 creep freeze 74 CRESTA 259 zonation maps 260–1 Croatia, fatalities 6 cross-bracing, reinforced buildings strengthened by 173, 273, 302–3 crush injuries 118 crush syndrome 114 Cuba, fatalities 6 cultural effects (of earthquake) 42–3 cumulative distribution function 326n[15] Cyprus, fatalities 5 Czechoslovakia (former), fatalities 6 damage–attenuation relationships 346 damage distribution 322–3 brick masonry buildings 327 in HAZUS 336–7 damage estimation/evaluation 97–8, 99–101 and vulnerability assessment 319–22 damage grades/levels (D0 to D5) 25, 28–30, 322 probability distributions 324 damage probability matrix (DPM) 322–3 example 323 non-structural loss included 345 damage states 321–2 in HAZUS methodology 334, 335 damaged settlements reconstruction of 151, 160–1 relocation of 153–5, 175 damping devices 279, 303 dams, failure of 126, 344 Dasht-e-Bayaz earthquake (Iran, 1968) 7, 31n[13] databases, for emergency management 98 dead bodies, dealing with 116 death risk probability 368–9 various causes listed 368 deaths see fatalities debris flows 126–7, 236 deconcentration of cities and services 175, 198–200 demolition of collapsed buildings 116–17, 136 de-sensationalising 87 design loads, geographical distribution of 251–3 design professionals education and training of 217–18 supporting 222–3 destroyed settlements, reconstruction of 151–2 developing countries, priorities for 380 development incentives 208 development projects, earthquake protection in 231 Dhamar earthquake (Yemen, 1982) 9, 32n[21], 117n[27], 229, 285, 361 diaphragms (floor or roof), effect on vulnerability 273, 329, 330 disaster management 92, 94 disaster mitigation measures 215, 217 disaster mitigation skills 231–2 INDEX 407 disaster plans 94 for community groups 181 national 212 testing 95 disaster relief 224–5 do-nothing-until-it-happens approach 375–6 dollar loss, meaning of term 39 Dominican Republic, fatalities 5 doors, jamming of 278 dressed stone masonry, vulnerability functions 329, 330 ductility 279 duration of earthquake 268 earthquake belts 14 earthquake catalogues compilation of 238–42 historical data 239–40 instrumental catalogues 239 earthquake drills 88, 180 earthquake engineering 220 earthquake engineering research 357–8 earthquake insurance 56–7, 58, 180, 376 compulsory 215, 261, 356–7 earthquake prediction 16, 71–8 earthquake preparedness planning 88–9 earthquake protection fundraising for 222 meaning of term 26 prioritisation of 186, 205 and reconstruction 165–75 earthquake protection strategies 177–232 and decision making 379–80 evaluating alternative strategies 364–9 examples 369–75 social and public policy aspects 375–80 earthquake resistance of buildings improving 263–309 and structural form 274–9 earthquake risk, meaning of term 313–14, 314n[3] earthquake risk mitigation, meaning of term 26 earthquake risk modelling 311–52 earthquake waves 17 attenuation of 17 earthquakes causes 16, 18 geographical distribution 14–16 economic damage, repairing 144–9 economic development and disaster mitigation measures 215, 217 effects on 43 economic development zones (EDZs) 147, 152 economic loss countries compared 13 effect on national finances 65–6 funding implications 65 as percentage of GNP 67 estimating 41, 345–6 meaning of term 39 reason for need for data 41–2 Ecuador builder training project 360–1 1987 earthquakes 360 economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 13 rammed earth building construction 361, 362 education and training design professionals 217–18 see also training Egypt, fatalities 5 El Asnam (Algeria, 1980) 339 El Salvador economic losses 13, 67 fatalities 5, 13 elastic rebound, energy release by 16 electrical networks emergency function 204 role in recovery 204 emergency building codes 155 emergency management 91–101 emergency operations 91–138 funding of 64–5 organisations involved in 93 emergency planning 92, 94 for businesses 189 emergency preparedness 84–9, 181 emergency shelters 130–2, 157, 158 employee training 189–90 energy absorbers 279 engineered buildings codes of practice 281–5 philosophy 281–3 typical requirements 283–5 structural types 265 408 INDEX engineering techniques, for earthquake-resistance improvement 278–9 engineers education and training of 214–15, 218 supporting 222 epicentral intensity 240 epicentre maps, example 241 EQSIM software tool 97n[5] Erzincan earthquake (Turkey, 1939) 7, 245 Erzurum earthquake (Turkey, 1983) 117n[27], 132, 245 escape routes, in commercial/industrial premises 189 Ethiopia, fatalities 5 Eurocode (EC8) for design of structures for earthquake resistance 251, 282 European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) 49 European Macroseismic Scale (EMS) 22–6 damage classification (D1 to D5) 25, 28–30, 322 intensity scale 22–4 relationship to PSI scale 328 vulnerability classes 26 European seismic hazard map, 250-1, Plate II evacuation 80–1, 128 pros and cons 82–3 temporary 129–30 time needed from multi-storey buildings 81 excavation (in collapsed buildings) 1, 112 exceedance probability (EP) curves 312 existing buildings, strengthening of 293–304, 358–9 exportation of earthquake mitigation measures 174 ‘fade-away’ time (of trapped survivors) 102, 103, 340 failsafe structures 186 false alarms, effect of 79, 82 familiarisation 87 fatalities 3–7 causes 7–10, 338 numbers 4–7 , 10–11, 13, 119, 339 relationship to number of buildings damaged 338, 339 risk probabilities 368 fault breaks 234 fault creep 74 fault mechanisms 17 field camps 134, 158 see also temporary relief camps field hospitals 115, 122 Fiji, fatalities 6 financial penalties, to encourage upgrading of buildings 209 fire brigades 125 fire following earthquake 124–6 fatalities due to 8 loss/risk prediction 344–5 ways of minimising 125, 179, 188, 200 fire sources, protection of 179, 188 fire station 125, 202, 204 fires, as cause of fatalities 8, 8,11 flooding hazards 236, 344 follow-on disasters 123–8, 235–6 as cause of fatalities 8, 338 risks due to 343–6 food supplies emergency 133 losses 146 foreshock activity, as indicator of big earthquake 75–6, 138n[52] foundations 278 fragile items, protection of 188 fragility curves 323, 333, 337 France, fatalities 5 frequency characteristics of buildings 197, 269 of soils 197 frequency of motion 268 Friuli earthquake (Italy, 1976) 149, 150, 297, 339, 351n[42], 358 fuel reserves for businesses 190 in temporary relief camps 133 functionally protected structures 186 furniture, large/heavy 179, 187 future challenges 383–4 garden walls, collapse of 179 gas networks 204 geodetic surveys 72 geographical distribution of earthquakes, 14-16, Plate I [...]... inertia forces 269, 272 infill panels 276–7, 291 informal settlements 125, 200, 211 information dissemination 84–6, 181 information management, in emergency response 97–8 information protection, for businesses 191–2 infrastructure damage to 48, 64 losses 143 reconstruction of 153 injured survivors on-site medical attention 114 transportation of 115 types of injury requiring treatment 117–18 in-plane forces,... fatalities 5 Kalamata earthquake (Greece, 1986) 67, 102, 146n[4], 339 Kangra earthquake (India, 1905) 7 Kansu earthquake (China, 1920) 7 Kanto earthquake (Japan, 1923) 7, 124, 257, 275n[8] Kathmandhu (Nepal) 1934 earthquake 7 risk category 12 Kawasaki (Japan), risk category 12 Kermanshah (Iran), risk category 12 411 Killari/Latur earthquake (India, 1993) 360 Kobe (Japan) 1995 earthquake 32n[21], 92n[2],... cost-effectiveness 375 criteria affecting choice 307 1755 earthquake 153, 307 listening equipment (during SAR operations) 111 loans, for rebuilding 161 lobbying (for better protection) 182, 211–12 local currency loss, meaning of term 39 Loma Prieta earthquake (USA, 1989) 60, 67, 124n[45], 339 Long Beach (USA), earthquake mitigation legislation 379 long-term earthquake prediction 71–4 long-term economic development,... landslides 126–7, 235–6 factors affecting 236, 343 fatalities due to 8 large ground deformations 234 Lebanon economic losses 13 fatalities 5, 13 Leninakan earthquake (former USSR, 1988) 32n[21], 153 lethal earthquakes frequency 10 most lethal (listed) 7 lethality ratio 338–9 Libya economic losses 13 fatalities 5, 13 Li´ ge earthquake (Belgium, 1983) 339 e lifting equipment 113, 114 Lima (Peru), risk category... intensity–attenuation relationships 247, 248 intensity of earthquakes 18, 21 mapping of 21–2 scales 22–6 historical development of 27 international aid 223–4 international aid and development organisations 224–32 costs of Kocaeli earthquake (Turkey, 1999) 49, 53 International Association for Earthquake Engineering (IAEE), on design codes 354 International Association for Seismology and Physics of the Earth’s Interior... seismometers, information from 97 self-protection measures 31–3 semi-market approach to earthquake protection 376 Sendai (Japan), risk category 12 separation between buildings 277 September 11 (2001) attacks 44n[4] service industries losses by 143 recovery of 148 severity of earthquakes 3, 7, 18 most lethal earthquakes (listed) 7 sewage disposal business use 190 and field camps 134 shanty towns see informal... on 43 long-term planning, at national level 212–13 long-term protection 226 Los Angeles (USA) 1994 earthquake 67 earthquake mitigation legislation 379 strengthening of buildings 359, 372–3, 380 cost per life saved 372 loss costs budgeting for 221 estimates over time 38, 40 types 39 loss estimates 144 information needed 313 limit to use 41 users 311, 313 loss estimation 311–13 applications in rural areas... 82 Luzon earthquake (Philippines, 1990) 66, 67, 339 M-parameters 339–41 injury distribution at collapse (M4) 340, 340, 341 mortality post-collapse (M5) 340–1, 340, 341 occupancy at time of earthquake (M2) 340 occupants trapped by collapse (M3) 339–40, 340, 341 population per building (M1) 340 machinery, protection of 188 magnitude of earthquakes 18 limits 21 measurement of 21 most lethal earthquakes... non-structural hazards 8, 179, 187–9, 277 non-structural losses 345 normal distribution 326n[15] Northridge earthquake (USA, 1994) losses due to 40–1, 54n[6], 60, 61, 63 precast concrete structures 280n[17] repair costs for residential buildings 55 small-business recovery 58 notification of likely earthquake 79–80 Noto earthquake (Sicily, Italy, 1693), reconstruction after 168–9 nuclear power stations 126, 186–7... medical services 122 out-of-plane forces, effects 272–3 Oxfam projects 361, 362 Pakistan economic losses 13 fatalities 4, 7, 13 see also Quetta paleoseismology 73 pancake collapse of reinforced concrete buildings 108, 110 Papayan earthquake (Colombia, 1983) 117n[29] Papua New Guinea, fatalities 5 parameterless scale of seismic intensity see PSI scale participation in earthquake protection 180 passive . research 357–8 earthquake insurance 56–7, 58, 180, 376 compulsory 215, 261, 356–7 earthquake prediction 16, 71–8 earthquake preparedness planning 88–9 earthquake protection fundraising for 222 meaning. 146–7 inertia forces 269, 272 infill panels 276–7, 291 informal settlements 125, 200, 211 information dissemination 84–6, 181 information management, in emergency response 97–8 information protection, for. 279 duration of earthquake 268 earthquake belts 14 earthquake catalogues compilation of 238–42 historical data 239–40 instrumental catalogues 239 earthquake drills 88, 180 earthquake engineering 220 earthquake