FROM TURBINE TO WIND FARMS TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS AND SPIN OFF PRODUCTS Edited by Gesche Krause From Turbine to Wind Farms - Technical Requirements and Spin-Off Products Edited by Gesche Krause Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book Publishing Process Manager Katarina Lovrecic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Martina Sirotic Image Copyright brook, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published March, 2011 Printed in India A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org From Turbine to Wind Farms - Technical Requirements and Spin-Off Products, Edited by Gesche Krause p cm ISBN 978-953-307-237-1 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface Part Chapter Part IX Introduction Local Attitudes towards Wind Power: The Effect of Prior Experience Jacob Ladenburg and Gesche Krause Power Network Requirements 15 Chapter Wind Farms and Grid Codes 17 María Paz Comech, Miguel García-Gracia, Susana Martín Arroyo and Miguel Ángel Martínez Guillén Chapter Active and Reactive Power Formulations for Grid Code Requirements Verification 41 Vicente Ln-Martínez and Joaqn Montañana-Romeu Part Empirical Approaches to Estimating Hydraulic Conductivity 63 Chapter Frequency Control of Isolated Power System with Wind Farm by Using Flywheel Energy Storage System 65 Rion Takahashi Chapter Control Scheme of Hybrid Wind-Diesel Power Generation System 77 Cuk Supriyadi A.N, Takuhei Hashiguchi, Tadahiro Goda and Tumiran Chapter Power Fluctuations in a Wind Farm Compared to a Single Turbine 101 Joaquin Mur-Amada and Jesús Sallán-Arasanz VI Contents Part Input into Power System Networks 133 Chapter Distance Protections in the Power System Lines with Connected Wind Farms 135 Adrian Halinka and Michał Szewczyk Chapter Impact of Intermittent Wind Generation on Power System Small Signal Stability 161 Libao Shi, Zheng Xu, Chen Wang, Liangzhong Yao and Yixin Ni Part Chapter Chapter 10 Spin-off Products of Offshore Wind Farms 183 The Potential for Habitat Creation around Offshore Wind Farms 185 Jennifer C Wilson Perceived Concerns and Advocated Organisational Structures of Ownership Supporting ‘Offshore Wind Farm – Mariculture Integration’ 203 Gesche Krause, Robert Maurice Griffin and Bela Hieronymus Buck Preface Humanity is facing several critical global challenges at the beginning of the 21st century One of which includes the quest for alternative energy resources that mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels Whereas fossil fuels are available in situ at all times, the utilisation of renewal energies has to cope with large temporal fluctuations ranging from seconds to seasons The passing shadow of a cloud over solar panels causes the fastest variability of power output followed by the gustiness of the wind, the rise and fall of the tides and the seasonal and annual variations of the availability of biological resources for energy generation Thus, the kinds of questions being asked of the research community have changed over the last decades, reflecting the increasing awareness of the finite nature and the instability of fossil fuel supply Capturing wind energy has been widely employed for centuries – i.e the traditional windmills of the Netherlands being a significant landscape element for centuries To date, the emerging market for wind power energy is experiencing remarkable global growth rates which affect not only the problem of how to technically link these into existing power systems, but also effect deeply rural landscapes and local livelihoods In many instances, initial positive local acceptance altered to the contrary, leading to sometimes strong opposition against the instalment of wind turbines and wind farms in rural landscapes Hence, solving this problem requires additional input of economists and social-political scientists The emerging interdisciplinary research increased the understanding and helped to develop adequate solutions to many of the problems revolving around wind power energy However, the disciplinary integration and interdisciplinary understanding must be much further advanced This book is a timely compilation of the different aspects of wind energy power systems It combines several scientific disciplines to cover the multi-dimensional aspects of this yet young emerging research field It brings together findings from natural and social science and especially from the extensive field of numerical modelling Harvesting wind power requires the erection of towers with rotating wings in the landscape or at sea Such artificial buildings with moving parts modify drastically the natural views of the panorama This raises the question of what are the initial necessary societal preconditions and attitudes to erect a wind turbine Furthermore, new grid codes are needed that addresses the requirements to allow the integration of the variable power generated by renewable energy systems into existing power networks Several contributions discuss issues revolving around the variable power of a single X Preface wind turbine, which poses high demands on its control, and means of buffer storage These technical aspects and problems are enhanced for clusters of turbines in a wind park and the complexity of safe power transmission of large and variable power from wind farms over long distances The book then moves beyond the classical wind farm aspects and explores potential spin-off products of offshore wind farms A case in point is the potential of creation of new marine habitats Various aspects of making a secondary use of the rigid offshore wind turbine basement constructions as anchor device for aquaculture in the open ocean is discussed in the final chapter The actual research questions of the societal challenges raised in this book should be not only framed and articulated by scientists but more and more with policy makers and relevant stakeholders, particularly those concerned with adaptation strategies and sustainable development However, one of the major struggles remains how to further define, develop and implement integrative research that studies, explains and projects the various interactions within human-environment and renewable energy systems Although the book does not provide cast-in-stone solutions to the critical challenges, it outlines the science needed to address these challenges in the near future Thus, a better understanding of manifold dimensions of wind energy systems is the core aim of this book Dr Gesche Krause Social Science and Coastal Management Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Bremen, Germany Part Introduction Local Attitudes towards Wind Power: The Effect of Prior Experience Jacob Ladenburg1 and Gesche Krause2 1AKF, 2ZMT, Danish Institute of Governmental Research Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology 1Denmark 2Germany Introduction Globally the market for wind power energy is experiencing some of the largest growth rates in history New markets are emerging and existing markets are expanding The rural landscape as we know today is thus changing as new, larger and more efficient turbines are erected At a general level the positive public acceptance of this change in the landscape appears to be associated with where people have been consulted prior to the instalment, thus acknowledging the potential local opposition towards specific projects However, several imperative questions remain open Does the social acceptance and wind power development go hand in hand? Or will the large increase in the wind power capacity have negative repercussions on the attitudes? And if so, is the change in attitude dependent on specific types of characteristics of the wind turbine development, which people gain experience with? In order to reduce potential negative feedback mechanisms from wind power development on attitudes a look into the “crystal ball” would be helpful If we ex ante can foresee some of the most obvious caveats associated with wind turbine development, we might be able to apply anticipatory planning that may mitigate the negative effects from wind turbine development on the acceptance of wind power Fortunately, existing attitude surveys contain information, which can be employed to assess how attitude and wind power development will be related in the future Many of the existing attitude wind power studies have included variables, which account for different types of “experience” that the respondents in the surveys had with wind turbines These variables often entail information on whether or not the respondents have had a “physical/visual” experience with wind turbines, such as a view to turbines from the residential property, distance to turbines, number of turbines in the local area etc In Denmark, these prior experience variables represent people who are living in a landscape with more wind turbines than the general population By examining the attitudes of these specific groups of respondents, we are able to shed light on how attitudes may alter in future landscapes with higher levels of wind turbine densities The present chapter therefore provides a review of these studies and discuses the results in relation to what can be “glimpsed” in the crystal ball for the future social acceptance of wind power generation  .. .From Turbine to Wind Farms - Technical Requirements and Spin-Off Products Edited by Gesche Krause Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 510 00 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2 011 InTech All... from orders@intechweb.org From Turbine to Wind Farms - Technical Requirements and Spin-Off Products, Edited by Gesche Krause p cm ISBN 978-953-307-237 -1 free online editions of InTech Books and. .. Intermittent Wind Generation on Power System Small Signal Stability 16 1 Libao Shi, Zheng Xu, Chen Wang, Liangzhong Yao and Yixin Ni Part Chapter Chapter 10 Spin-off Products of Offshore Wind Farms 18 3