SAMPLING AND SURVEYING RADIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS © 2001 by CRC Press LLC LEWIS PUBLISHERS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. SAMPLING AND SURVEYING RADIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS Mark E. Byrnes Contributors David A. King Susan F. Blackburn Robert L. Johnson Sebastian C. Tindall Walter E. Remsen, Jr. Samuel E. Stinnette Nile A. Luedtke © 2001 by CRC Press LLC LIMITED WARRANTY CRC Press LLC warrants the physical diskette(s) enclosed herein to be free of defects in materials and workmanship for a period of thirty days from the date of purchase. If within the warranty period CRC Press LLC receives written notification of defects in materials or workmanship, and such notification is determined by CRC Press LLC to be correct, CRC Press LLC will replace the defective diskette(s). 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-364-6 Library of Congress Card Number 00-058777 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Byrnes, Mark E. Sampling and surveying radiological environments / Mark E. Byrnes. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-364-6 (alk. paper) 1. Radioactive waste sites—Evaluation. 2. Radioactive pollution—Measurement. 3. Environmental sampling. 4. Radioactive waste disposal—Law and legislation—United States. I. Title. TD898.155.E83 B95 2000 628.5'2—dc21 00-058777 CIP © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Preface The purpose of Sampling and Surveying Radiological Environments is to provide the environmental industry with guidance on how to design and implement defensible sampling programs in radiological environments, such as those found in the vicinity of uranium mine sites, nuclear weapons production facilities, nuclear reactors, radio- active waste storage and disposal facilities, and areas in the vicinity of nuclear accidents. This book presents many of the most effective radiological surveying and sampling methods for use in supporting: • Environmental site characterization • Building characterization • Waste characterization • Tank characterization • Risk assessment • Feasibility study • Remedial design • Postremediation site closeout • Postdecontamination and decommissioning building closeout Standard operating procedures have been provided for those sampling methods that do not require specialized training, such as: • Swipe sampling • Concrete sampling • Paint sampling • Soil sampling • Sediment sampling • Surface water sampling • Groundwater sampling • Drum sampling For more specialized radiological investigative techniques (e.g., in situ gamma spectroscopy, downhole HPGe measurements, cone penetrometry), information has been provided to help the reader understand how the technique works and under what conditions it can be used most effectively. Guidance is provided on how to use the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Data Quality Objectives (DQO) and Data Quality Assessment (DQA) process to support the design of defensible sampling programs and to ensure that the collected data are of adequate quality and quantity to meet the intended purpose. Templates have been provided to assist the user in going through the DQO Process and to assist in the writing of a DQO Summary Report and Sampling and Analysis Plan. These templates appear in Appendices A and B, and on the CD accompanying the book. The capabilities of multiple statistical sample design software packages are presented along with Web page addresses where copies of the software can be downloaded. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC The book includes a summary of the major environmental laws and regulations that apply to radiological sites, including those that govern the actions of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Other major topics addressed by this book include radiation detection theory; sample preparation, documentation, and shipment; data verification and validation; data management; and equipment decontamination. This book focuses on those methods and procedures that have proved themselves to be effective and/or are acknowledged by the EPA, DOE, NRC, and/or U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) as reputable techniques. The primary references used as guidance to support the preparation of this book include: Byrnes, M.E., 1994, Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations, Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI. Driscoll, F.G., 1986, Groundwater and Wells, 2nd ed., Johnson Division, St. Paul, MN. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987, A Compendium of Superfund Field Operations Methods, EPA/540/P-87/001a. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and Feasibility Studies under CERCLA, EPA/540/G-89/004. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989, Methods for Evaluating the Attainment of Cleanup Standards, Volume 1: Soils and Solid Media, PB89-234959. Environmental Protection Agency, 1991, Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design and Installation of Ground-Water Monitoring Wells, EPA/600/4-89/034. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992a, Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Attainment of Cleanup Standards, Volume 3: Reference-Based Standards for Soils and Solid Media, EPA 230-R-94-004. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992b, RCRA Ground-Water Monitoring: Draft Technical Guidance, EPA/530-R-93-001. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992c, Final Comprehensive State Ground Water Protec- tion Program Guidance, 100-R-93-001. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992d, Guide to Management of Investigation—Derived Waste, PB92-963353. Environmental Protection Agency, 1994, Guidance for the Data Quality Objectives Process, EPA QA/G-4. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996, Guidance for Data Quality Assessment, Practical Methods for Data Analysis, EPA QA/G-9. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investiga- tion Manual (MARSSIM), EPA 402-R-97-016. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, EPA Guidance for Quality Assurance Project Plans, EPA QA/G-5. International Atomic Energy Agency, 1991, Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometer Surveying, Vienna, Austria. U.S. Department of Energy, 1994, Radiological Control Manual, DOE/EH-0256T, Rev. 1. U.S. Department of Energy, 1996, Field Screening Technical Demonstration Evaluation Report, DOE/OR/21950-1012. A number of commercially available scanning, direct measurement, and sam- pling methods are discussed in this book. While the author believes these methods should be considered as potentially appropriate methods for radiological investiga- tions, he is by no means specifically endorsing or marketing these products. The © 2001 by CRC Press LLC author chose this approach over a more general discussion because he believes it will provide more valuable information to the reader. The primary audiences for this book are U.S. and international government agencies and their contractors responsible for the remediation and/or decontamina- tion and decommissioning of radiological sites and facilities. This book is also intended to be used as a university textbook to teach advanced undergraduate or graduate-level courses that deal with the practical elements of performing environ- mental investigations in radiological environments. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC About the Author Mark E. Byrnes is a senior data quality/ sampling specialist working for Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), a 39,000-person, employee-owned science and engineering company. Mr. Byrnes works at the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford Nuclear Reservation, supporting environmental remediation and facility decontamination and decommissioning activities performed by Bechtel Hanford, Inc., and CH2M Hill under the U.S. Depart- ment of Energy Environmental Restoration Program. Mr. Byrnes received his bachelor of arts degree in geology from the University of Colorado (Boulder), and his master of sci- ence degree in geology/geochemistry from Portland State University (Oregon). Mr. Byrnes is a registered professional geologist in the States of Tennessee and Kentucky, and is the author of the 1994 Lewis Publishers book titled, Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations, which has been used as a textbook at Georgia Tech and many other major universities across the country. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC About the Contributors David A. King is a certified health physicist, working for SAIC. Mr. King supports environmental characterization and remediation of Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) sites operated by the U.S. Corps of Engineers. Mr. King specializes in dose/risk assessments for radiologically contaminated sites and radiological surveys using the EPA Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM). Mr. King received his bachelor of science degree in physics from Middle Tennessee State University, and his master of science degree in radiation protection engineering from the University of Tennessee (Knoxville). Mr. King received his certification from the American Board of Health Physics in 1999. Susan F. Blackburn is employed by SAIC as a senior environmental statistician. She provides statistical support to a variety of environmental programs including the U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Restoration Program at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation, the Advanced Mixed Waste Treatment Facility at Idaho Falls, the U.S. Department of Energy River Protection Program at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation, and the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management for the Yucca Mountain Project. Ms. Blackburn has a bachelor of science degree in mathematics, a master of science degree in human factors, and a master of science degree in quantitative methods (statistics) from the University of Illinois in Champaign/Urbana. Robert L. Johnson is with the Environmental Assessment Division, Argonne National Laboratory. Dr. Johnson holds a master’s degree in environmental systems from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and a Ph.D. in soil and water resources from Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Dr. Johnson’s areas of expertise include adaptive sampling program design and environmental data management. Sebastian C. Tindall is a senior environmental scientist with Bechtel Hanford, Inc., Richland, WA. Mr. Tindall works at the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford Nuclear Reservation, supporting environmental remediation and building decontam- ination and decommissioning activities performed by Bechtel Hanford, Inc., under the U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Restoration Program. Mr. Tindall received his bachelor of arts degree in chemistry and biology and his master of science degree in chemistry from the University of California at Santa Cruz. Mr. Tindall has taught chemistry and hazardous materials courses for over 15 years at the college and university level. He is now on the faculty at Washington State University. Mr. Tindall is a registered environmental assessor in the State of Cali- fornia and a certified hazardous materials manager (master level). Mr. Tindall is nationally recognized as an expert in systematic planning for environmental decision making based on the EPA Data Quality Objectives (DQO) process and has developed and delivered DQO training courses for the U.S. Department of Energy. Walter E. Remsen, Jr., is a senior environmental scientist working for Bechtel Hanford, Inc., at the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford Nuclear Reservation. Mr. Remsen provides technical support for environmental and engineering activities © 2001 by CRC Press LLC performed by Bechtel Hanford, Inc., and CH2MHill under the U.S. Department of Energy Environmental Restoration Program. Mr. Remsen received his bachelor of science degree in oceanography from the University of California—Humboldt and master of science degree in geology from the University of California—Northridge. Samuel E. Stinnette is a senior data analyst working for the SAIC office in Oak Ridge, TN. He has more than 15 years of experience in the field of statistical data analysis and statistical consulting, with more than 10 years of experience working with environmental data analysis. He has provided statistical and programming support to projects associated with the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and Resource Conservation and Recov- ery Act (RCRA) at sites across the United States, with a focus on human health risk assessment. He has provided varying levels of support to Remedial Investigation (RI) and RCRA Facility Investigation (RFI) site characterizations, removal actions, corrective measures studies, feasibility studies, and risk-based prioritization. Mr. Stinnette has a bachelor of science degree in mathematics and history from James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, and a master of science degree in statistics from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. Nile A. Luedtke is a senior chemist and analytical laboratory coordinator, SAIC–Oak Ridge, TN. Mr. Luedtke’s expertise encompasses analytical chemistry and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC), spanning a variety of environmental areas. He has worked in oceanographic research, commercial laboratory operations, the nuclear power industry, laboratory oversight programs, and environmental project management. His career has included development and implementation programs in relation to analytical laboratory interfaces, project chemistry support, project data quality development, and project data quality assessment. Mr. Luedtke holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY, and a master’s degree in analytical chemistry from the University of Rhode Island, Kingston. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Radiological Contaminant Sources 2 1.2 Impacted Media 3 1.3 Contaminant Migration Pathways and Routes of Exposure 4 1.4 Definitions of Common Radiological Terms 5 References 11 Chapter 2 Environmental Laws and Regulations 2.1 Environmental Laws 13 2.1.1 CERCLA Compliance 14 2.1.2 SARA Compliance 16 2.1.3 RCRA Compliance 17 2.1.4 TSCA Compliance 20 2.1.5 NEPA Compliance 22 2.1.6 CWA Compliance 23 2.1.7 SDWA Compliance 24 2.1.8 CAA Compliance 25 2.2 Federal Regulations 26 2.3 State Regulations 27 2.4 Other Regulations 27 References 39 Chapter 3 Radiation and Radioactivity 3.1 Types of Radiation 43 3.1.1 Alpha Particles 52 3.1.2 Beta Particles 52 3.1.3 X Rays 53 3.1.4 Gamma Rays 53 3.2 Sources of Radiation and Radioactivity 54 3.2.1 Primordial Sources 54 3.2.2 Cosmic Radiation 54 3.2.3 Anthropogenic Sources 55 3.3 Radiation Detection Instrumentation 56 3.3.1 Radiation Detectors 56 3.3.1.1 Gas-Filled Detectors 56 3.3.1.2 Scintillation Detectors 57 3.3.1.3 Solid-State Detectors 57 3.3.1.4 Passive Integrating Detectors 58 3.3.2 Instrument Inspection and Calibration 59 References 60 © 2001 by CRC Press LLC [...]... rem 1 ) 980 980 810 810 840 980 10 10 17 0 39 27 29 23 24 24 17 16 14 16 20 19 16 14 × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 a Value of quality factor (Q ) at the point where the dose equivalent is maximum in a 30-cm-diameter cylinder tissue-equivalent phantom b Monoenergetic neutrons incident normally on a 30-cm-diameter... equivalent; absorbed dose in rad equal to 1 rem Table 1. 2 Mean Quality Factors (Q ) and Fluence per Unit Dose Equivalent for Monoenergetic Neutrons Neutron Energy (MeV ) Quality Factora (Q ) (Thermal)2.5 × 10 –8 1 × 10 –7 1 × 10 –6 1 × 10 –5 1 × 10 –4 1 × 10 –3 1 × 10 –2 1 × 10 1 5 × 10 1 1 2.5 5 7 10 14 20 40 60 1 × 10 2 2 × 10 2 3 × 10 2 4 × 10 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.5 7.5 11 11 9 8 7 6.5 7.5 8 7 5.5 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 Fluence.. .Chapter 4 Sampling and Surveying Radiological Environments 4 .1 Designing a Defensible Sampling Program 62 4 .1. 1 DQO Implementation Process 62 4 .1. 1 .1 Planning Meeting 63 4 .1. 1.2 Scoping 63 4 .1. 1.3 Regulator Interviews 65 4 .1. 1.4 Global Issues Meeting 66 4 .1. 1.5 Seven-Step DQO Process .66 4 .1. 1.6 Preparing a DQO Summary Report 12 1 4 .1. 1.7 Sampling. .. 17 8 4.3 Media Sampling 18 0 4.3 .1 Sample Types 18 0 4.3 .1. 1 Grab Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 2 Composite Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 3 Swipe Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 4 Integrated Samples 18 2 4.3.2 Sampling Designs 18 2 4.3.3 Media Sampling Methods 18 2 4.3.3 .1 Swipe Sampling 18 2 4.3.3.2 Concrete Sampling .18 4 4.3.3.3 Paint Sampling 18 7... combination of short-lived radon daughters (for radon-222: polonium- 218 , lead- 214 , bismuth- 214 , and polonium- 214 ; and for radon-220: polonium- 216 , lead- 212 , bismuth- 212 , and polonium- 212 ) in 1 L of air that will result in the ultimate emission of 1. 3 × 10 5 MeV of potential alpha particle energy Working level month (WLM): An exposure to 1 working level for 17 0 h (2000 working hours per year /12 months per... include Th-232, U-235, U-238, and the isotopes resulting from the decay of these parent isotopes, such as Ac-227, Pa-2 31, Ra-226, Ra-228, Th-230, U-234, etc (see Appendix E) On the other hand, the contaminants of concern at a nuclear weapons production facility may include isotopes such as Co-60, Cs -1 3 7, Eu -1 5 2, Eu -1 5 4, Eu -1 5 5, Pu-239/Pu-240, Sr-90, etc © 20 01 by CRC Press LLC INTRODUCTION 3 Figure 1. 1 Example... 309 Chapter 9 Equipment Decontamination 9 .1 Radiological Decontamination Procedure 312 9 .1. 1 Tape Method . 312 9 .1. 2 Manual Cleaning Method . 312 9 .1. 3 HEPA Vacuum Method 313 9 .1. 4 High-Pressure Wash Method 313 9.2 Chemical Decontamination Procedure . 314 9.2 .1 Large Equipment 314 9.2.2 Sampling Equipment 314 References 316 © 20 01. .. approximately 17 0 hours per month) © 20 01 by CRC Press LLC 10 SAMPLING AND SURVEYING RADIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS Table 1. 1 Quality Factors for Various Types of Radiation Quality Factor Radiation Type Absorbed Dosea 1 20 1 0.05 10 10 0 .1 0 .1 X-rays, gamma, or beta radiation Alpha particles, multiple-charged particles, fission fragments and heavy particles of unknown charge Neutrons of unknown energy High-energy... Press LLC 2 SAMPLING AND SURVEYING RADIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS chain-of-custody, field and photographic logbooks, and field sampling forms Chapter 6 provides guidance on data verification and validation Chapter 7 addresses how radiological data should be managed Chapter 8 provides guidance on implementing the EPA five-step data quality assessment (DQA) process Chapter 9 provides radiological and chemical... Sampling and Analysis Plan .12 1 4.2 Scanning and Direct Measurement Methods 12 7 4.2 .1 Typical Radiation Instrumentation Used in Radiological Investigations 12 8 4.2.2 Radiological Detection Systems 13 2 4.2.2 .1 Soil Characterization and Remediation 13 2 4.2.2.2 Building Decontamination and Decommissioning 14 4 4.2.2.3 Tank, Drum, Canister, Crate, and Remote Surveying .16 3 4.2.2.4 . Crate, and Remote Surveying 16 3 4.2.2.4 Exposure Monitoring 17 8 4.3. Media Sampling 18 0 4.3 .1 Sample Types 18 0 4.3 .1. 1 Grab Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 2 Composite Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 3 Swipe Samples 18 1 4.3 .1. 4. Meeting 66 4 .1. 1.5 Seven-Step DQO Process 66 4 .1. 1.6 Preparing a DQO Summary Report 12 1 4 .1. 1.7 Sampling and Analysis Plan 12 1 4.2 Scanning and Direct Measurement Methods 12 7 4.2 .1 Typical Radiation. Exposure 4 1. 4 Definitions of Common Radiological Terms 5 References 11 Chapter 2 Environmental Laws and Regulations 2 .1 Environmental Laws 13 2 .1. 1 CERCLA Compliance 14 2 .1. 2 SARA Compliance 16 2 .1. 3