Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — pagei—#1 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ECOTOXICOLOGY A Comprehensive Treatment © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page iii — #3 ECOTOXICOLOGY A Comprehensive Treatment Michael C. Newman William H. Clements CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor Si Francis Group, an informa business © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page iv — #4 CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-13:978-0-8493-3357-6 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Newman, Michael C. Ecotoxicology: a comprehensive treatment / Michael C. Newman and William H. Clements, p.; cm. "A CRC title." Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8493-3357-6 (alk. paper) 1. Toxicology—Environmental aspects. I. Clements, William H. (William Henry), 1954- II. Title. [DNLM: 1. Environmental Exposure—adverse effects. 2. Environmental Pollutants—toxicity. 3. Ecosystem. 4. Population Dynamics. WA 671 E196 2008] RA1226.N48 2008 615.9'02-dc22 2007017797 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — pagev—#5 Dedication To Peg, Ben, and Ian (MCN) To Diana for her endless support over the years (WHC) © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page vii — #7 Do that which will render thee worthy of happiness Critique of Pure Reason, I. Kant 1781 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page ix — #9 Contents Preface xxv Authors xxvii I Hierarchical Ecotoxicology 1 Chapter 1 The Hierarchical Science of Ecotoxicology 3 1.1 An Overarching Context of Hierarchical Ecotoxicology 3 1.1.1 General 3 1.1.2 The Modified Janus Context 4 1.2 Reductionism versus Holism Debate 6 1.2.1 Reductionism versus Holism as a False Dichotomy 6 1.2.2 Microexplanation, Holism, and Macroexplanation 6 1.2.3 A Closer Look at Macroexplanation 7 1.3 Requirements in the Science of Ecotoxicology 8 1.3.1 General 8 1.3.2 Strongest Possible Inference 8 1.4 Summary 9 1.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 9 References 10 II Organismal Ecotoxicology 11 Chapter 2 The Organismal Ecotoxicology Context 13 2.1 Overview 13 2.2 Organismal Ecotoxicology Defined 14 2.2.1 What Is Organismal Ecotoxicology? 14 2.3 The Value of Organismal Ecotoxicology Vantage 18 2.3.1 Tractability and Discreteness 18 2.3.2 Inferring Effects to or Exposure of Organisms with Suborganismal Metrics 18 2.3.3 Extrapolating among Individuals: Species, Size, Sex, and Other Key Qualities 19 2.3.4 Inferring Population Effects from Organismal Effects 19 2.3.5 Inferring Community Effects from Organismal Effects 20 2.3.6 Inferring Potential for Trophic Transfer from Bioaccumulation 21 2.4 Summary 21 References 21 Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Toxicants 23 3.1 Overview 23 3.2 DNA Modification 25 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — pagex—#10 3.3 Detoxification of Organic Compounds 25 3.3.1 Phase I Reactions 26 3.3.2 Phase II (Conjugative) Reactions 27 3.4 Metal Detoxification, Regulation, and Sequestration 28 3.5 Stress Proteins and Proteotoxicity 30 3.6 Oxidative Stress 31 3.7 Enzyme Dysfunction 32 3.8 Heme Biosynthesis Inhibition 32 3.9 Oxidative Phosphorylation Inhibition 35 3.10 Narcosis 35 3.11 Summary 36 3.11.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 36 References 37 Chapter 4 Cells and Tissues 43 4.1 Overview 43 4.2 Cytotoxicity 43 4.2.1 Necrosis and Apoptosis 43 4.2.2 Types of Necrosis 44 4.2.3 Inflammation and Other Responses 47 4.3 Genotoxicity 50 4.3.1 Somatic and Genetic Risk 50 4.3.2 DNA Damage 52 4.3.3 Chromatids and Chromosomes 52 4.4 Cancer 53 4.4.1 Carcinogenesis 53 4.4.2 Cancer Latency 54 4.4.3 Threshold and Nonthreshold Models 55 4.5 Sequestration and Accumulation 55 4.5.1 Toxicants or Products of Toxicants 55 4.5.2 Cellular Materials as Evidence of Toxicant Damage 56 4.6 Summary 57 4.6.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 57 References 57 Chapter 5 Organs and Organ Systems 63 5.1 Overview 63 5.2 General Integument 63 5.3 Organs Associated with Gas Exchange 65 5.3.1 Air Breathing 65 5.3.2 Water Breathing 66 5.4 Circulatory System 66 5.5 Digestive System 67 5.6 Liver and Analogous Organs of Invertebrates 68 5.7 Excretory Organs 69 5.8 Immune System 69 5.9 Endocrine System 70 5.10 Nervous, Sensory, and Motor-Related Organs and Systems 72 5.11 Summary 72 5.11.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 72 References 73 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page xi — #11 Chapter 6 Physiology 81 6.1 Overview 81 6.2 Ionic and Osmotic Regulation 82 6.3 Acid–Base Regulation 83 6.4 Respiration and General Metabolism 84 6.5 Bioenergetics 87 6.6 Plant-Related Processes 89 6.7 Summary 90 6.7.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 90 References 91 Chapter 7 Bioaccumulation 95 7.1 Overview 95 7.2 Uptake 95 7.2.1 Cellular Mechanisms 95 7.2.2 Routes of Entry into Organisms 99 7.2.3 Factors Modifying Uptake 101 7.3 Biotransformation 104 7.4 Elimination 105 7.4.1 Hepatobiliary 106 7.4.2 Renal 106 7.4.3 Branchial 106 7.4.4 Other Elimination Mechanisms 107 7.5 Summary 107 7.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 107 References 108 Chapter 8 Models of Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability 115 8.1 Overview 115 8.2 Bioaccumulation 115 8.2.1 Underlying Mechanisms 116 8.2.2 Assumptions of Models and Methods of Fitting Data 116 8.2.3 Rate Constant-Based Models 118 8.2.4 Clearance Volume-Based Models 122 8.2.5 Fugacity-Based Models 123 8.2.6 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models 125 8.2.7 Statistical Moments Formulations 125 8.3 Bioavailability 127 8.3.1 Conceptual Foundation: Concentration→Exposure→Realized Dose →Effect 127 8.3.2 Types and Estimation of Bioavailability 128 8.4 Summary 131 8.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 131 References 132 Chapter 9 Lethal Effects 135 9.1 Overview 135 9.1.1 Distinct Dynamics Arising from Underlaying Mechanisms and Modes of Action 136 9.1.2 Lethality Differences among Individuals 140 9.1.2.1 Individual Effective Dose Hypothesis 141 9.1.2.2 Probabilistic Hypothesis 142 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page xii — #12 9.1.3 Spontaneous and Threshold Responses 144 9.1.4 Hormesis 144 9.1.5 Toxicant Interactions 145 9.2 Quantifying Lethality 146 9.2.1 General 146 9.2.2 Dose or Concentration–Response Models Quantifying Lethality 146 9.2.3 Time–Response Models Quantifying Lethality 150 9.3 Lethality Prediction 154 9.3.1 Organic Compounds and the QSAR Approach 154 9.3.2 Metals and the QICAR Approach 156 9.4 Summary 157 9.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 157 References 158 Chapter10 Sublethal Effects 163 10.1 Overview 163 10.2 General Categories of Effects 166 10.2.1 Development and Growth 166 10.2.2 Reproduction 167 10.2.3 Behavior 167 10.2.4 Physiology 168 10.3 Quantifying Sublethal Effects 168 10.3.1 Hypothesis Testing and Point Estimation 169 10.3.1.1 Basic Concepts and Assumptions of Hypothesis Tests 175 10.3.1.2 Basic Concepts and Assumptions of Point Estimation Methods 179 10.4 Summary 179 10.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 180 References 180 Chapter11 Conclusion 189 11.1 General 189 11.2 Some Particularly Key Concepts 189 11.3 Concluding Remarks 191 III Population Ecotoxicology 193 Chapter12 The Population Ecotoxicology Context 195 12.1 Population Ecotoxicology Defined 195 12.1.1 What Is a Population? 195 12.1.2 Definition of Population Ecotoxicology 196 12.2 The Need for Population Ecotoxicology 196 12.2.1 General 196 12.2.2 Scientific Merit 197 12.2.3 Practical Merit 199 12.3 Inferences within and between Biological Levels 203 12.3.1 Inferring Population Effects from Qualities of Individuals 204 12.3.2 Inferring Individual Effects from Qualities of Populations 204 12.3.3 Inferring Community Effects from Qualities of Populations 205 12.4 Summary 208 12.4.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 208 References 208 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Clements: “3357_c000” — 2007/11/9 — 12:43 — page xiii — #13 Chapter13 Epidemiology: The Study of Disease in Populations 215 13.1 Foundation Concepts and Metrics in Epidemiology 215 13.1.1 Foundation Concepts 215 13.1.2 Foundation Metrics 218 13.1.3 Foundation Models Describing Disease in Populations 224 13.1.3.1 Accelerated Failure Time and Proportional Hazard Models 224 13.1.3.2 Binary Logistic Regression Model 227 13.2 Disease Association and Causation 228 13.2.1 Hill’s Nine Aspects of Disease Association 228 13.2.2 Strength of Evidence Hierarchy 232 13.3 Infectious Disease and Toxicant-Exposed Populations 235 13.4 Differences in Sensitivity within and among Populations 236 13.5 Summary 237 13.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 237 References 238 Chapter14 Toxicants and Simple Population Models 241 14.1 Toxicants Effects on Population Size and Dynamics 241 14.1.1 The Population-Based Paradigm for Ecological Risk 241 14.1.2 Evidence of the Need for the Population-Based Paradigm for Risk 242 14.2 Fundamentals of Population Dynamics 243 14.2.1 General 243 14.2.2 Projection Based on Phenomenological Models: Continuous Growth 244 14.2.3 Projection Based on Phenomenological Models: Discrete Growth 246 14.2.4 Sustainable Harvest and Time to Recovery 247 14.3 Population Stability 250 14.4 Spatial Distributions of Individuals in Populations 253 14.4.1 Describing Distributions: Clumped, Random, and Uniform 253 14.4.2 Metapopulations 254 14.4.2.1 Metapopulation Dynamics 254 14.4.2.2 Consequences to Exposed Populations 256 14.5 Summary 258 14.5.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 258 References 259 Chapter15 Toxicants and Population Demographics 263 15.1 Demography: Adding Individual Heterogeneity to Population Models 263 15.1.1 Structured Populations 263 15.1.2 Basic Life Tables 264 15.1.2.1 Survival Schedules 264 15.1.2.2 Mortality–Natality Tables 266 15.2 Matrix Forms of Demographic Models 270 15.2.1 Basics of Matrix Calculations 270 15.2.2 The Leslie Age-Structured Matrix Approach 272 15.2.3 The Lefkovitch Stage-Structured Matrix Approach 274 15.2.4 Stochastic Models 276 15.3 Summary 277 15.3.1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 277 References 278 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... Bioaccumulation Chapter 8 Models of Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability Chapter 9 Lethal Effects Chapter 10 Sublethal Effects Chapter 12 The Population Ecotoxicology Context Chapter 14 Toxicants and Simple Population Models Chapter 15 Toxicants and Population Demographics Chapter 17 Population Genetics: Damage and Stochastic Dynamics of the Germ Line Chapter 18 Population Genetics: Natural Selection Chapter. .. 2007 /11 /9 — 12 :43 — page xxv — #25 TABLE 1 Continued Hypothetical Course 2 Chapter 1 The Hierarchical Science of Ecotoxicology Chapter 2 The Organismal Ecotoxicology Context Chapter 7 Bioaccumulation Chapter 8 Models of Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability Chapter 9 Lethal Effects Chapter 10 Sublethal Effects Chapter 12 The Population Ecotoxicology Context Chapter 14 Toxicants and Simple Population... Models Chapter 15 Toxicants and Population Demographics Chapter 17 Population Genetics: Damage and Stochastic Dynamics of the Germ Line Chapter 18 Population Genetics: Natural Selection Chapter 20 Introduction to Community Ecotoxicology Chapter 21 Biotic and Abiotic Factors That Regulate Communities Chapter 22 Biomonitoring and the Responses of Communities to Contaminants Chapter 23 Experimental Approaches... data Macroexplanation is also valuable but has as significant challenges (i.e., the problem of ecological inference) in its application as do holism and microexplanation Three, not two, explanatory vantages exist: microexplanation (reductionism), holism, and macroexplanation In the modified Janus context, they are equally appropriate vantages of explanation and inquiry applicable to the different “faces”... understand its parts and also how that level functions as part of a larger whole This can only be done by simultaneous and thoughtful application of microexplanation, holism, and macroexplanation These explanatory vantages are equally useful to all levels of organization because no level has a favored status and the cause–effect–significance structure can be shifted freely to any level This last statement... without mechanistic knowledge In the modified Janus context, cause is most often sought at a lower level via reductionism after observation of a consistent association at a level The initial observation of a consistent association was probably made in what many would describe as a holistic study Some macroexplanation may have been applied based on paradigms from the next highest level Macroexplanation is... (King 19 97) and epidemiology (Last 19 83).2 Ecological inference is used often by social scientists and epidemiologists with care and appropriate qualification Many relevant examples of macroexplanation can also be found in epidemiology Radon levels measured in counties and lung cancer deaths tallied in those same counties may be used to imply the chances of an individual dying of lung cancer at a certain... to 2002 Dr Newman has served numerous international, national, and regional organizations including the OECD, the U.S EPA Science Advisory Board, and the U.S National Academy of Science NRC In 2004, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry awarded him its Founders Award, “the highest SETAC award, given to a person with an outstanding career who has made a clearly identifiable contribution... with an understanding beyond that afforded by a general textbook but, unlike that from more specialized books, remains focused on paradigms and fundamental themes Designed to be flexible enough to meet the variety of instructional vantages, subsets of chapters may be used while de-emphasizing others (See Table 1 for two possible chapter groupings.) Regardless of an instructor’s vantage and TABLE 1 Two... Illustrations of Chapter Selections That Might Be Chosen in a 3-Credit Hour Ecotoxicology Course (The Entire Book Could Be Covered in a 4-Credit Hour Course) Hypothetical Course 1 Chapter 1 The Hierarchical Science of Ecotoxicology Chapter 2 The Organismal Ecotoxicology Context Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Toxicants Chapter 4 Cells and Tissues Chapter 5 Organs and Organ Systems Chapter 6 Physiology Chapter . Methods 17 9 10 .4 Summary 17 9 10 .4 .1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 18 0 References 18 0 Chapter1 1 Conclusion 18 9 11 .1 General 18 9 11 .2 Some Particularly Key Concepts 18 9 11 .3 Concluding. Summary 10 7 7.5 .1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 10 7 References 10 8 Chapter 8 Models of Bioaccumulation and Bioavailability 11 5 8 .1 Overview 11 5 8.2 Bioaccumulation 11 5 8.2 .1 Underlying. Prediction 15 4 9.3 .1 Organic Compounds and the QSAR Approach 15 4 9.3.2 Metals and the QICAR Approach 15 6 9.4 Summary 15 7 9.4 .1 Summary of Foundation Concepts and Paradigms 15 7 References 15 8 Chapter1 0