Tales of the Mighty Dead Historical Essays in the Metaphysics of Intentionality Robert B. Brandom HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2002 Copyright 0 2002 by the President and Fellows of Haward College All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brandom. Robert. Tales of the mighty dead : historical essays in the metaphysics of intentionality 1 Robert 8. Brandom. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-674-00903-7 (alk. paper) 1. Philosophy-History. I. Title. For my sons, Eric and Russell, exemplary cartesian products of the mammalian and the discursive- dear to my heart, fierce and learned in discussion, and altogether their own special, admirable selves. CONTENTS Introduction: Five Conceptions of Rationality 1 ONE TALKING WITH A TRADITION 1 Contexts 21 I. Kant and the Shifttfvom Epistemology to Semantics 21 11. Descartes and the Shifttfuom Resemblance to Representation 24 111. Rationalism and Functionalism 26 IV Rationalism and Inferentialism 28 V Hegel and Pragmatism 31 2 Texts L Spinoza 34 11. Leibniz 40 IIL Hegel 45 IV Frege 57 V Heidegger 75 VI. Sellars 83 3 Pretexts I. Methodology: The Challenge 90 11. Hermeneutic Platitudes 92 111. De dicto Specijcations of Conceptual Content 94 I\.! De re Specifications of Conceptual Content 99 V Tradition and Dialogue 107 VI. Reconstructive Metaphysics 11 1 viii Contents Contents ix TWO HISTORICAL ESSAYS 4 Adequacy and the Individuation of Ideas in Spinoza's Ethics I. Ideas Do Not Represent Their Correlated Bodily Objects 121 11. The Individuation of Objects 124 111. The Individuation of Ideas 126 IV Scientia intuitiva 129 V A Proposal about Representation 133 VI. Conatus 136 VII. Ideas of Ideas 139 5 Leibniz and Degrees of Perception I. Distinctness of Perception and Distinctness ofldeas 146 11. A Theory: Expression and lnference 156 6 Holism and Idealism in Hegel's Phenomenology I. Introduction 178 11. The Problem: Understanding the Determinateness of the Objective World 178 111. Holism 182 IV Conceptual Difficulties of Strong Holism 187 V A Bad Argument 188 VI. Objective Relations and Subjective Processes 191 VII. Sense Dependence, Reference Dependence, and Objective Idealism 194 VIII. Beyond Strong Holism: A Model 199 IX. Traversing the Moments: Dialectical Understanding 202 X. Conclusion 208 7 Some Pragmatist Themes in Hegel's Idealism 210 I. Instituting and Applying Determinate Conceptual Norms 21 1 11. Self-Conscious Selves 215 111. Modeling Concepts on Selves: The Social and Inferential Dimensions 222 IV Modeling Concepts on Selves: The Historical Dimension 226 8 Frege's Technical Concepts I. Bell on Sense and Reference 237 11. Sluga on the Development of Frege's Thought 252 111. Frege's Argument 262 9 The Significance of Complex Numbers for Frege's Philosophy of Mathematics 277 1. Logicism and Platonism 277 11. Singular Terms and Complex Numbers 278 111. The Argument 281 IX Other Problems 284 V Possible Responses 286 VI. Categorically and Hypothetically Specijiable Objects 292 VII. Conclusion 296 10 Heidegger's Categories in Sein und Zeit I. Fundamental Ontology 299 11. Zuhandenheit and Practice 301 111. Mitdasein 309 IV Vorhandenheit and Assertion 312 11 Dasein, the Being That Thematizes I. Background 324 11. Direct Argumentsfor Dasein's Having Sprache 331 111. No Dasein without Rede 332 IV Rede and Gerede 335 V Falling: Gerede, Neugier, Zweideutigkeit 342 x Contents 12 The Centrality of Sellars's Two-Ply Account of Observation to the Arguments of "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind" 348 I. Sellarsk Two-Ply Account of Observation 349 11. 'Looks' Talk and Sellars's Diagnosis of the Cartesian Hypostatization of Appearances 353 111. Two Confirmations of the Analysis of 'Looks' Talk in Terms of the Two-Ply Account of Observation 357 IV A Rationalist Account of the Acquisition of Empirical Concepts 359 V Giving Theoretical Concepts an Observational Use 362 VI. Conclusion: On the Relation between the Two Components 364 Tales of the Mighty Dead Notes Credits Index Introduction: Five Conceptions of Rationality This is a work in the history of systematic philosophy, and it is itself animated by a systematic philosophical aspiration. In my earlier book Making It Explicit (and even more in the argumentative path drawn from it in Articulating Reasons), systematic considerations were in the fore- ground, with historical ones relegated to the background. This book re- verses that figure-ground gestalt, bringing a reading of the philosophical tradition to the fore. Whereas the other books were heavily system- atic and only lightly historical, this one is heavily historical and only lightly systematic. The interactions it seeks to establish between text and interpretation, however, between the historical and the philosophi- cal, between points of view discerned or attributed and those adopted or endorsed, are sufficiently intricate that it is worth saying something somewhat systematic about the conception of philosophical historiogra- phy that governs it, if the sort of enterprise being undertaken is to be properly understood. There is a familiar perspective from which neither the historical story nor its metaphilosophical rationale would appear as of the first impor- tance. Analytic philosophy in its youth was viscerally hostile both to his- torical philosophical enterprises and to systematic ones. For that move- ment of thought initially defined itself in part by its recoil from the excesses of philosophical programs tracing their roots back to Hegel, for whom history and system jointly articulate the form of reason itself. This self-understanding was never unanimous. In the middle third of the twentieth century Wilfrid Sellars-one of my particular heroes- stood almost alone among major figures in the analytic tradition in both 1 2 Introduction Five Conceptions of Rationality 3 casting his project in a systematic mold, and motivating and articulating it in terms of an original rethinking of major episodes in the history of philosophy. But institutional success often diminishes the felt need for the purity and rigoristic exclusionism characteristic of the fighting faiths of embattled innovators in the early days of their struggles. With time it has become clearer, I think, that commitment to the fundamental ana- lytic credo-faith in reasoned argument, hope for reasoned agreement, and clarity of reasoned expression (and the greatest of these is clarity)- is not incompatible with a philosophical understanding of philosophical understanding as admitting, indeed, perhaps even as requiring, both his- torical and systematic forms. Greater tolerance for the systematic impulse in philosophy has been encouraged, I think, by the example of such towering contemporary fig- ures as David Lewis and Donald Davidson (both, as it happens, teachers of mine at Princeton years ago). They are both masters of the genre of philosophical writing distinctive of the analytic tradition: the gemlike self-contained essay. Yet in that medium, each has carried through philo- sophical projects that, in virtue of the comprehensiveness of their aim and the unity of the basic principles appealed to in explanations, deserve comparison with the great philosophical systems of old. And greater ap- preciation of the contribution that attention to historical antecedents can make to our understanding of contemporary philosophical prob- lems has come in part from the concrete examples of progress of this sort in particular subdisciplines. So, for instance, it would be a rare writer on, say, practical reasoning who would not acknowledge the crucial im- portance of detailed work on Aristotle, Hume, and Kant both for under- standing the current state of play and for finding a way forward from it. Behind such low matters of disciplinary sociology, though, lie funda- mental philosophical issues about the nature of rationality. It will be helpful in thinking about the sort of rational reconstruction of a philo- sophical tradition undertaken here to consider five models of rationality: logical, instrumental, translational, inferential, and historical. I do not claim that this list is exhaustive, and I do not claim that these models are mutually exclusive. But they will perhaps serve to place a kind of histori- cal understanding in a larger philosophical space. On one picture, to be rational is to be logical. Being sensitive to the force of reasons is a matter of practically distinguishing logically good arguments from those that are not logically good. For a set of claims to serve as a good reason for another claim is for there to be a logically valid argument relating them to that claim as premises to conclusion. Nonlogical facts and the meanings of nonlogical vocabulary contribute to reasoning only by providing premises for logically valid inferences. The program of assimilating all good reasoning to this model has been immensely influential and productive in the philosophical tradi- tion. It took its modern form when Frege vastly increased the expres- sive power of logic by giving us formal control over the inferential sig- nificance of quantificationally complex properties. The success this idiom was shown to have in codifying mathematical reasoning-by Frege himself, by Hilbert, and by Russell and Whitehead-was a major impetus for logical empiricism, whose central project was to extend the logical model of reasoning to include empirical science. Just when it looked as though the limits of this enterprise had been reached, techni- cal advances in the logical expression of modalities gave the undertaking new life. The logical model of reasoning is most at home close to its origins: in codifying theoretical inference, the way beliefs can provide reasons for other beliefs. The instrumental model of reasoning begins with prac- tical inference-in particular, the way desires or preferences, together with beliefs, can provide reasons for action. It identifies rationality with intelligence, in the sense of a generalized capacity for getting what one wants: the reason of Odysseus, rather than of Aristotle. What one has reason to do, on this model, is what provides a means to an endorsed end. Means-end reasoning is formally codified in rational choice theory, in both its decision-theoretic and game-theoretic species. Dutch book arguments show that utility (the measure of preference) will be maxi- mized by practical reasoners who assign probabilities to compound be- liefs in ways that satisfy the axioms of classical probability theory. And the laws of classical logic can be deduced as special cases from those axi- oms. So the instrumental model of rationality has some claim to sub- sume the logical one as a special case. One thing to notice about these two models of rationality is that they both treat (nonlogically) contentful beliefs and desires as inputs. Given a set of beliefs, and perhaps desires, they purport to tell us which connec- tions among them are rational: which constellations of them provide genuine reasons for which others. They accordingly presuppose that the contents of those psychological states can be made intelligible inde- 4 Introduction pendently and in advance of considering rational connections among them. The idea that one can first fix the meaning or content of premises and conclusions, and only then worry about inferential relations among them, is characteristic of traditional and twentieth-century empiricism. This implicit semantic commitment is questioned, however, by the ra- tionalist tradition in semantics, which sees issues of what is a reason for what as essential to the identity and individuation of the conceptual contents that stand in those inferential relations. The logical and instrumental models of reasons are also (and not co- incidentally) alike in their formality. Each sees rationality as being a matter of the structure of reasoning rather than its content. The substan- tial content of the beliefs and desires that provide the premises for candi- date theoretical and practical inferences are wholly irrelevant to the ra- tionality of the conclusions drawn from them. All that matters for the correctness of the inference is that they have the form of deductively valid inferences or maximization of expected utility given those pre- mises. The premises themselves are beyond criticism by these models of rationality, unless and insofar as they themselves were acquired as conclusions of prior inferences, which are assessable in virtue of their form-and then only relative to the prior (only similarly criticizable) commitments that provide their premises. A model of rationality that is not in this way purely formal is the translational-interpretational model, most fully developed by Davidson. According to this view, to say that some behavior by others is rational is roughly to say that it can be mapped onto our linguistic behavior in ways that make it possible for us to converse with them-at least to draw in- ferences from their claims, to use them as premises in our own reason- ing. The idea is to use our own practical know-how, our ability to distin- guish reasons from nonreasons and to tell what follows from what, to assess the theoretical rationality of others. They are rational insofar as their noises (and other behavior, described in nonintentional terms) can be mapped onto ours so as to make them make sense by our stan- dards: to exhibit them as believers in the true and seekers after the good by our own lights. Rationality, then, is by definition what we've got, and interpretability by us is its definition and measure. Rationality is not on this view a formal matter at all. For the unintelli- gibility or wackiness of the substantive, nonlogical beliefs and desires we take our interpretive targets to be evincing in their behavior, both lin- Five Conceptions of Rationality 5 guistic and nonlinguistic, is every bit as relevant to assessments of their rationality as the connections between them we discern or take them to espouse. We have to be able to count the others as agreeing with us in the contents of and (so) connections among enough of their beliefs and desires to form a background against which local disagreements can be made intelligible, if we are to find them interpretable, that is, rational- for what they have to show up as beliefs and desires-at all. Rationality as interpretability can also claim to subsume or incorpo- rate both the logical and the instrumental models of rationality. For the first, the explicit form of a Davidsonian interpretation includes a re- cursive truth theory for the idiom being interpreted, including novel sentential compounds that have never actually been used. So identify- ing expressions functioning as logical vocabulary can provide a formal framework within which the rest of the interpretive process can take place. Being logical creatures is on this view a necessary condition of be- ing rational ones, even though there is a lot more to rationality than just that. For the second, making the behavior of the interpreted creatures intelligible requires attributing sample bits of practical reasoning. And Davidson takes it that those will have the form of what he calls "com- plete reasons": constellations of beliefs and desires that rationalize the behavior according to the instrumental model. Unless one can interpret the target behavior as for the most part instrumentally rational, one can- not interpret it at all. Finally, the interpretive model does not take the rational connections among psychological states or the sentences that express them to be ir- relevant to the contents they are taken to evince. On the contrary, what makes something have or express the content it does is what makes it in- terpretable in one way rather than another. And that is a matter of its connections to other things, the role it plays in the overall rational be- havioral economy of the one being interpreted. What makes it right to map another's noise onto this sentence of mine, and so to attribute to it the content expressed by that sentence in my mouth, is just that its rela- tions to other noises sufficiently mirror the relations my sentence stands in to other sentences of mine: what is evidence for and against it, and what it is evidence for and against, as well as what environing stimuli call forth my endorsement of it and what role it plays in practical reason- ing leading to nonlinguistic action. Those consequential relations are of the essence of interpretability, and so of rationality on this model. 6 Introduction Five Conceptions of Rationality 7 I have offered only the briefest of reminders about these first three conceptions of rationality, since they are established and familiar, and have been ably expounded, elaborated, and defended by others. The final two conceptions differ in these respects. But they are if anything more important for understanding the body of this work. So they call for somewhat fuller sketches. A fourth model of rationality is the inferentialist one I elaborate in Making It Explicit. On this view, to be rational is to play the game of giv- ing and asking for reasons. Utterances and states are propositionally contentful just insofar as they stand in inferential relations to one an- other: insofar as they can both serve as and stand in need of reasons. Conceptual contents are functional inferential roles. The inferences that articulate conceptual contents are in the first instance material infer- ences, rather than logical ones, however-inferences like that from A's being to the west of B to B's being to the east of A, or from a coin's being copper to its melting if heated to 1084" C. but not if heated only to 1083". To be rational is to be a producer and consumer of reasons: things that can play the role of both premises and conclusions of inferences. So long as one can assert (put something forward as a reason) and infer (use something as a reason), one is rational. The details of the particular material inferential connections one subscribes to affect the contents of the sentences that stand in those relations, but so long as the con- nections are genuinely inferential, they are rational-in a global sense, which is compatible with local failures of rationality, in that one makes bad inferences or reasons incorrectly according to the content-constitu- tive material inferential commitments governing those particular sen- tences. This inferential view of rationality develops and incorporates a broadly interpretational one. For to take or treat someone in practice as offering and deserving reasons is to attribute inferentially articu- lated commitments and entitlements. Such deontic scorekeeping re- quires keeping two sets of books, one on the consequences and anteced- ents of the other interlocutor's commitments when they are conjoined with other commitments one attributes to her, and the other on the con- sequences and antecedents of those commitments when they are con- joined with the commitments one undertakes or endorses oneself. This is a matter of being able to map another's utterances onto one's own, so as to navigate conversationally between the two doxastic perspectives: to be able to use the other's remarks as premises for one's own reasoning, and to know what she would make of one's own. Although the details of this process are elaborated differently-in terms of the capacity to spec- ify the contents of another's commitments both in the way that would be made explicit by de dicto ascriptions of propositional attitude, and in the way that would be made explicit by de re ascriptions of the same attitudes1 deontic scorekeeping is recognizably a version of the sort of interpretive process Davidson is talking about. A kind of interpretability is what rationality consists of on this inferentialist picture too. Embedding an inferentialist semantics in a normative pragmatics of- fers further resources for developing that common thought, however. For my claim in Making It Explicit is that there is another way to under- stand what it is to be inferring and asserting, besides interpretability. Nothing is recognizable as a practice of giving and asking for reasons, I claim, unless it involves undertaking and attributing commitments. And those commitments must stand in consequential relations: making one move, undertaking one commitment, must carry with it further commitments-presystematically, commitments whose contents follow from the contents of the first commitment. Further, a practice of giving and asking for reasons must be one in which the issue of one's entitle- ment to a commitment one has undertaken (or that others attribute) can arise. And those entitlements, too, must stand in consequential rela- tions: entitlement to one move can carry with it entitlement to other^.^ On the basis of considerations such as these, I identify a particular structure of consequential commitment and entitlement that deserves to be called inferential. The two flavors of deontic status generate three sorts of consequential scorekeeping relations, and so three dimensions along which genuine material inferential relations are articulated: Commitment-preserving inferential relations are a generalization to the case of material inferences of deductive relations. For example, since C. S. Peirce is the one who established a universal standard for the meter based on the wavelengths of light, any who are com- mitted to Peirce having been a great philosopher are, whether they know it or not, committed to the one who established a universal standard for the meter based on the wavelengths of light having been a great philosopher. Entitlement-preserving inferential relations are generalizations to 8 Introduction Five Conceptions of Rationality 9 the case of material inferences of inductive relations. For example, since falling barometric readings correlate reasonably reliably (via a common cause) with the stormy weather ahead, one who is both entitled and committed to the claim that the barometric reading is falling has some reason entitling (in a weak, noncoercive sense) commitment to the claim that stormy weather is ahead. Incompatibility entailments are generalizations to the case of mate- rial inference of modally robust relations. Two claims are incompat- ible (according to a scorekeeper) if commitment to one precludes entitlement to the other. For instance, claiming that the patch is wholly red is incompatible with the claim that it is wholly blue. One claim incompatibility entails another if everything incompati- ble with the second is incompatible with the first (but perhaps not vice versa). For example, being a lion entails being a mammal in this sense, because everything incompatible with being a mammal (for instance, being an invertebrate, or a prime number) is incom- patible with being a lion. I call a practice of attributing commitments and entitlements inferen- tially articulated if deontic score is kept in a way that respects relations of all three of these kinds.3 These three flavors of inference determine the intercontent, intraper- sonal inheritance of commitment and entitlement. If in addition a prac- tice contains testimonial intracontent, interpersonal inheritance that has what I call a "default and challenge" structure, and language exits and language entries assessed interpersonally by reliability4 then I call the practice in question discursive. Part Two of Making It Explicit shows what further articulation, by substitution inferences and the anaphoric inheri- tance of substitution-inferential potential, explicable entirely in terms of these, is then involved in having locutions playlng the broadly inferen- tial functional roles of singular terms and complex predicates, of proper names, definite descriptions, and demonstratives, of semantic vocabu- lary, intentional vocabulary, and a variety of other sophisticated logical categories. The overall claim is that the practices exhibiting the broadly inferential social structure of inheritance of normative statuses that I call "discursive" are just those that will be interpretable with respect to our own. The claim that this formal characterization in terms of inferen- tially articulated normative statuses, and the material one in terms of mappings onto our own practices, are two ways of picking out the same practices is a bold and potentially falsifiable empirical claim. I do not claim to have demonstrated, in Making It Explicit, the truth of the con- jecture that these two notions of rationality in fact coincide. But one of the guiding systematic theoretical aspirations of that book is to give a structural characterization of practices that deserve to be thought of as built around the giving of and asking for reasons one that will suffice to ensure material interpretability in terms of our own linguistic practices. I have already indicated that the normative inferentialist view of meaning-constitutive rationality should be thought of as a way of devel- oping the basic insights of the interpretational approach to rationality. It also leads to novel understandings of what lies behind the logical and in- strumental models. Seeing semantics and the understanding of rational- ity as two sides of one coin, and understanding both in terms of the material inferential articulation of commitments and entitlements (the normative pragmatics behind the inferential semantics), together open up the possibility of a different way of thinking about the relation be- tween logic and rationality. Instead of seeing conformity with logical truths as what rationality consists in, one can see logical vocabulary as making possible the explicit codification of meaning-constitutive infer- ential relations. On such an expressive view of the function of logic, the task characteristic of logical locutions as such is to let us say, in the form of explicit claims, what otherwise we could only do-namely, endorse some material inferential relations and reject others. Prior to the intro- duction of the conditional, for instance, one can implicitly take or treat the material inference (in any of the three senses botanized above) from p to q as a good or bad one, endorsing or rejecting it in practice. Once a suitable conditional is available, though, one can explicitly claim that p entails q. And explicit claims are the sort of thing we can reason about, ask for evidence or arguments for. The expressive job of specifically logi- cal locutions is to make inferential relations explicit, to bring them into the game of giving and asking for reasons as things whose own rational credentials are available for inspection and criticism. And since, accord- ing to the inferentialist approach to semantics, it is those rational rela- tions in virtue of which ordinary nonlogical expressions mean what they do, by making inferential relations explicit (claimable, fit themselves to serve as premises and conclusions of other inferences), and so subject to reasoned criticism and reasoned defense, logical locutions bring essen- [...]... brought into play by picking up on these rationalist ideas Second is the significance of the relation between the content of concepts and the process (which Kant calls "synthesis") of applying them, for the sense in which the concepts involved in that process ought to be thought of as determinate Taking up these themes involves a shift of emphasis in the sort of intentionality that is going to be the initial... affirmation or act of will Ideas are conceivings, then: practical doings I suggest we think of what one is doing as passing to other ideas, ideas that in that sense follow from the earlier ones The talk of an act of will is talk of committing oneself by drawing conclusions from it, using it as a premise in reasoning and a basis for planning That is, conceiving is applying concepts in the sense of making judgments... thought in logic But he takes it that crucial features of the universe -in particular, the intentionality by which thoughts point beyond themselves, purporting to represent other things-are not in principle intelligible in these terms Grasping and explaining these features requires moving to a new, higher sort of under- Contexts 27 standing: scientia intuitiva It is characteristic of this sort of understanding... commitments and drawing inferences According to this thesis, the whole structured constellation of subject-defining processes and object-defining relations should itself be modeled on one of its aspects: the activities of the self-conscious self The aim of the discussion is to explain a basic idealist thesis: the structure and unity of the concept is the same as the structure and unity of the self The strategy... profoundest and truest insights to be found in the Critique o Pure Reason that the unity which constitutes the nature f of the Notion [Begriffl is recognized as the original synthetic unity of apperception, as the unity of the 1 think, or of self-consciousness Thus we are justified by a cardinal principle of the Kantian philosophy in referring to the nature of the I in order to learn what the Notion is But... (according to the expressive cumulative genealogical model of rationality) it is capable of embodying and conveying Part One of this work offers (in Chapters 1 and 2) a historical context-a way of understanding the tradition that is the horizon of intelligibility being at once created and appealed to in what follows And in Chapter 3 it offers a methodological rationale, a way of thinking about the sort of. .. individuating conatus can only be understood intuitively-that is, functionally So there is an especially intimate relation between this ontological principle of individuation and the epistemological notion of the adequacy of ideas At the unattainable limit of this form of understanding, where every finite mode is fully understood in terms of the role it plays in the whole universe, stands the mind of God, in. .. boundaries of our bodies, and the possibility of being aware of anything beyond them? In this case, the metaphysical raw materials available for addressing that question about intentionality are provided by the notion of perceptions differing in the degree of distinctness they display The main question can be subdivided into two First, what is the relation between a perception that is an apperceiving and the. .. One, at the cost of not understanding how I see the essays there as fitting together and defining a tradition, and what sort of enterprise I understand myself to be engaged in there Part One can be read without Part Two, at the cost of not seeing any actual example of the sort of undertaking I theorize about there My intent is that-like any proper text or tradition -the whole be more than the sum of its... to their content (The holism that inferentialism brings in its train, and the functionalism of which it is a species, are common 12 Introduction topics of many of the essays that make up the body of this book.) It should now be clear that from that same point of view, both the logical and the instrumental conceptions of rationality stem from mistaken philosophies of logic-misunderstandings of the expressive . Tales of the Mighty Dead Historical Essays in the Metaphysics of Intentionality Robert B. Brandom HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2002 Copyright. ference-codifying) expressive role of normative vocabulary lies behind views that see every instance of one or another of these (and, indeed, other) patterns of practical reasoning as in principle lacking. of these kinds.3 These three flavors of inference determine the intercontent, intraper- sonal inheritance of commitment and entitlement. If in addition a prac- tice contains testimonial intracontent,