Higher Education and International Student Mobility in the Global Knowledge Economy Kemal Gürüz HIGHER EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY IN THE GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY This page intentionally left blank HIGHER EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY IN THE GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY Kemal Gürüz State University of New York Press Published by State University of New York Press, Albany © 2008 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher For information, contact State University of New York Press, Albany, NY www.sunypress.edu Production by Marilyn P Semerad Marketing by Michael Campochiaro Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gürüz, Kemal Higher education and international student mobility in the global knowledge economy / Kemal Guruz p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-7914-7413-6 (hardcover : alk paper) Education, Higher Student mobility Foreign study Knowledge management I Title LB2322.2.G87 2008 378—dc22 2007032222 10 Contents List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgments xiii List of Abbreviations xv Chapter The Global Knowledge Economy and Higher Education 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Globalization and the Knowledge Economy 1.2.1 The Industrial Society 1.2.2 Transformation to the Knowledge Society and the Global Knowledge Economy 1.3 The Global Higher Education Agenda Chapter Enrollment and Increasing Demand 2.1 Increasing Demand 2.2 Demographic Shift and Nontraditional Students 2.3 Increasing Demand and International Student Mobility Chapter The Rise of Market Forces 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Historical Background Public Spending and Tuition Fees Private Institutions Changing Patterns of Governance 3.4.1 Historical Background 3.4.2 The State, the Academia, and the Society as Actors in Governance 3.4.3 Transformation from the Regulatory to the Evaluative State v 1 3 14 21 21 31 34 35 35 37 44 52 52 56 58 vi Contents 3.4.4 Spread of Lay Governance, Strengthened Institutional Leadership, and a Redefinition of Autonomy 3.5 The Rise of Market Forces in Relation to International Student Mobility Chapter New Providers of Higher Education 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Impact of Technology 4.3 Impact of Technology on Traditional Institutions 4.3.1 Distributed Learning 4.3.2 Virtual Arms and Unbundling of Services in Traditional Institutions 4.4 Types of New Providers 4.4.1 Consortia and Networks 4.4.2 For-Profit Higher Education 4.4.3 Virtual Universities 4.4.4 Corporate Universities 4.4.5 Certificate Programs 4.4.6 Museums, Libraries, Publishers, and Media Enterprises 4.4.7 Academic Brokers 4.4.8 Franchises and Branch Campuses 4.5 The Global Higher Education Market Chapter Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education 5.1 Historical Antecedents 5.1.1 International Academic Mobility in the GrecoRoman and the Muslim Worlds 5.1.2 International Academic Mobility in Medieval Times 5.1.3 International Academic Mobility: 1500–1800 5.1.4 The Birth of the Napoleonic University and the German Research University 5.1.5 International Academic Mobility in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries 5.1.6 The Emergence of the Modern American University 5.2 Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education since 1950 67 77 79 79 80 83 83 86 91 91 93 99 100 102 103 103 105 113 117 117 117 120 123 127 129 132 135 Contents 5.3 Definition of Terms 5.3.1 Globalization and Internationalization 5.3.2 Rationales for Internationalization of Higher Education 5.4 The European Response: The Bologna Process 5.4.1 Chronological Background 5.4.2 An Evaluation of the Bologna Process 5.5 GATS: A “Commercial/Anglo-Saxon Response” 5.6 Quality Assurance in Transnational Higher Education: “Multinational Organizational Responses” 5.7 The Global Higher Education Agenda and International Student Mobility Chapter International Student Mobility 6.1 The Global Picture Today 6.2 Major Host Countries 6.2.1 United States of America 6.2.1.1 E NROLLMENT S TATISTICS 6.2.1.2 A N E VALUATION OF I NTERNATIONALIZA TION P OLICIES OF THE U NITED S TATES 6.2.2 The United Kingdom 6.2.3 Germany 6.2.4 France 6.2.5 Australia 6.2.6 Other Major and Emerging Host Countries 6.2.6.1 J APAN 6.2.6.2 R USSIA 6.2.6.3 C ANADA 6.2.6.4 N EW Z EALAND 6.3 Major Countries of Origin of Foreign Students 6.3.1 China: A Major Source Country and an Emerging Major Host Country 6.3.2 India 6.3.3 Other Major Countries of Origin 6.4 Regional Breakdown of International Student Mobility 6.5 International Student Mobility and International Migration Concluding Remarks vii 138 138 140 144 144 146 149 154 158 161 161 170 170 170 186 191 195 198 201 204 204 207 208 210 213 213 216 218 229 232 237 viii Contents Appendix A: Data on Enrollment and Expenditures in National Systems and International Student Mobility 245 Appendix B: Definition of Terms Related to Evaluation and Quality Assurance 257 Appendix C: The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System and the Diploma Supplement 259 Appendix D: Recognition of Qualifications in Europe 263 Appendix E: Education, Training, and Youth Programs of the European Union 267 Appendix F: Definitions of Foreign Students 271 Appendix G: General Agreement on Trade in Services 275 Notes 281 Bibliography 295 Index 317 Illustrations FIGURES 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Global Enrollment in Higher Education Top Twenty Countries in National Enrollment in Higher Education Gross Enrollment Ratio in Selected Country Groups Gross Enrollment Ratio in Selected Countries Projected Global Demand for Higher Education Expenditure on Tertiary-Level Education Institutions per Student Share of Private Sources in Expenditure on Tertiary-Level Education Institutions Share of Households in Expenditure on Tertiary-Level Education Institutions Share of Private Institutions in National Systems The Depiction of the Rise of Market Forces in the Triangle of Coordination Growth of Enrollment in Australian Offshore Programs Growth of Global Foreign Student Enrollment International Student Mobility: Number of Students Hosted; Top Twenty-five Countries in 2004 Forecast of Global Demand for International Student Places in MESDCs International Student Mobility: Students Hosted as Percentage of Total Enrollment; Top Twenty-five Countries in 2004 International Student Mobility: Number of Students; Top Twenty-five Countries of Origin in 2004 ix 24 26 28 29 30 38 39 40 46 56 108 162 163 164 165 166 Index Gandhi, Rajiv, 294 GATE (Global Alliance for Transnational Education), 155 GATS, 144, 149–54, 157, 242, 275–79, 292 GATT, 275 General Electric, George Washington University, 110 Georgia: enrollment data, 248t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; students abroad, 256t Georgia Institute of Technology, 107, 226 George Washington University, 103 GER (gross enrollment ratio): in selected country groups, 29f; Trow’s classification of, 21; in various countries, 22, 28f German, 102, 123–24, 127, 130 German Institute of Science and Technology, 112 German research university, 4, 127–29, 132, 169 Germany, 7, 9–13, 21–22, 26, 29, 38–39, 41, 67, 74, 89, 94, 99, 107, 110, 112, 120, 122, 128–29, 131–34, 144, 147, 163–66, 168–70, 172–73, 175, 182, 184, 190, 193, 195–200, 208, 215, 217–19, 221–22, 224, 228–29, 233–34, 238–39, 246, 250, 252, 254, 271, 282, 291; cost of higher education, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 21–22, 26, 29f, 246t; excellence initiative, 74; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 131t, 163f, 165, 168t, 196f, 197, 200, 208, 215, 217–19, 221–22, 224, 228–29, 254t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies, 196; national income data, 9t, national innovation system, 7; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 67; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 12; share of households in expenditures, 250t; share of private institutions, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 250t; students abroad, 166f, 170t, 173f, 193, 198f, 199, 254t; tuition fees in, 41, 252 Ghana: enrollment data, 29f, 248t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 167f, 256t G.I Bill of Rights, 59 Giessen, University, of, 282–83 323 Gilman, Daniel Coit, 132 Glasgow, University of, 4, 281 global: civilization, 1–2; economic world, 5–6; education market, 114; higher education complex, 243; higher education market, 15, 83; knowledge economy, 15, 17, 34, 113, 140–42, 228, 232, 238–39; markets, 142; online market, 89; supply chains, 12; youth population, 30 global demand for higher education, 30f–31 global enrollment: breakdown by region, 25t; growth of, 23, 24f global higher education: agenda, 14–19, 159; market, 113, 143, 159 globalization, 92, 117, 135, 137–38, 290; definition of, 1; economic, 6; and the knowledge economy, 3–14; Nye’s definition, 15 GMAT, 103 Google, 90 Göttingen, University of, 132 governance of higher education, 36, 52–77; American system of, 54, 75; AngloSaxon model, 164, 169, 209; in Australia, 62–63; autonomy, 76; British system of, 55, 57–58, 75; bureaucratic revolution in, 53; in Canada, 57; in China, 66; continental European model, 53–54, 58, 75; in Denmark, 73; in France, 54, 57, 61, 69; German research university, 4, 127–29, 132, 169; in Germany, 54, 58, 67, 74, 127–29; in Greece, 71; Humboldtian model, 54, 75; in Italy, 70; in Japan, 63–65, 72; in Korea, 65–66; lay, 65, 67–77, 115, 158, 287; Napoleonic model, 53, 127–29; in the Netherlands, 54, 62, 67, 73; in Norway, 73; in Portugal, 70–71; referential models, 53, 75; role of the state, 58–67, 115, 158; in Spain, 57, 67, 69–70; stakeholders, 56–58, 69; in Sweden, 57, 72–73; in Turkey, 71; in the United Kingdom, 54–55, 59, 61–62, 71–72; in the United States, 55–56, 59–60, 132–35; universal university model, 75 grand tour, 126 grands ecoles, 127, 198 Graz, University of, 124 GRE, 103, 291 Greco-Roman, 117, 290 324 Index Greece, 9–11, 22, 29, 110, 117, 166–68, 170, 193–94, 218–21, 247, 250, 254, 271, 279; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 247t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 254t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; R&D indicators, 10t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 250t; students abroad, 166f, 167f, 170t, 193, 219, 220f, 254t; tuition fees in, 41 Greek, 53, 120–21, 123, 290 Gregory IX (pope), 52 Greifswald, University of, 124 Gresham College, 282 Griffith University, 99 Groningen, University of, 4, 128 gross enrollment ratio: breakdown by country groups, 28f; in selected countries, 29f; threshold value according to UNESCO, 28–29; Trow’s classification, 21; of the world, 23 Grundtvig program, 267 Hall, Granville Stanley, 132 Hanseatic University, 99 Harper, William Rainey, 132 Harran, 119 Harvard University, 132–33, 184 Hatch Act, 133 Ha’Universita Ha’Pethuo, 81 Hebrew, 123 HECS (Higher Education Contribution Scheme), 41 HEFCE (Higher Education Funding Council for England), 85 Heidelberg, University of, 124, 132 Hellenic/Hellenistic, 2, 117–19 Heriot Watt University, 111 high-income countries: demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 26f; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t, national innovation system, 7; number of clusters, 13; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 12 Hippocrates, 119 Hoffmann, Augustus Wilhelm von, 282 Hoghskoleverket, 73 Honduras: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t Hong Kong, 7, 9–11, 29, 46, 108–9, 111–12, 166–68, 170, 172–73, 178, 193, 203–4, 209–10, 218, 224–26, 233, 240, 248, 252, 255, 277; cost of higher education, 203, 252t; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 29f, 248t; foreign students hosted, 225, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization polices of, 224–25; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; R&D indicators, 10; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; students abroad, 166f–67f, 170t, 173, 178, 193, 203–4, 209–10, 255t; tuition fees, 252t; University of, 225 Hsien Long, Lee, 188 Huddersfield, University of, 98 Hue University, 112 human development index, 12 Humboldt/Humboldtian: model, 54, 75; type of university, 18; Wilhelm von, 128 Hungary, 29, 38–40, 46, 120, 124, 247, 250, 252, 272, 277; cost of higher education, 252t; enrollment data, 29f, 247t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; tuition fess, 252 IARU (International Alliance of Research Universities), 92 IAU (International Association of Universities), 9, 23, 152 ibn–Rushd (Averroes), 119 ibn–Sina (Avicenna), 119 iCarnegie, 86 ICDE (International Council for Open and Distance Education), 155 Iceland, 38–40, 167, 249–50, 256, 277, 279; enrollment data, 249t; expenditure per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 249t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 167f, 256t Index ICHEFAP (International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project), 43, 252 ICT (information and communication technologies), 5–8, 11t, 14–15, 17, 78, 81–84, 92, 102–3, 105, 112–13, 138, 149, 159, 241, 267–68 IDP (Education Australia), 31, 89, 137, 169, 201 IIE, 135, 161, 189, 190, 291 IIM (Indian Institute of Management), 218 IIT (Indian Institute of Technology), 13, 188, 218; tuition fees in, 43 Illama Iqbal University, 81 Illinois: State University, 55; University of, 86, 185; University of, at UrbanaChampaign, 172 immigration, 33 India, 6–14, 18–88, 22, 24, 26, 29–31, 38, 43, 46, 96, 98–99, 102, 107–8, 110–12, 119, 130, 153, 166, 168–75, 182, 190, 193–94, 201–25, 208, 210–11, 216–18, 235, 238–41, 243, 246, 251–252, 255, 279, 284, 290; cost of higher education, 203, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 218, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; number of clusters, 13; R&D in, 14; R&D indicators, 10t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 251t; students abroad, 166f, 170t, 173f, 174f, 193, 203–5, 210–11, 217f, 255t; tuition fees in, 43, 252 Indian Institute of Science, 218 Indiana, University of, 185 Indira Gandhi Open University, 81, 85 Indonesia, 7, 9–12, 22, 26, 29, 38–40, 46, 99, 108, 166, 173, 178–79, 203, 218, 223–24, 240, 246, 251, 255; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; R&D indicators, 10t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; share of 325 private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 166f, 173f, 179f, 203, 223, 224f, 255t industrial: enlightenment, 3; Revolution, 3–4, 6; society, 3, industrial revolution, 281–82 inns of court, 130 INQAAHE (International Network of Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education), 155, 158 Institute of Distance Education, 81 INSEAD, 110, 226 internationalization, 15–16, 19, 117, 135, 137–44, 158, 163, 165, 169, 171, 178, 186–96, 199–204, 207–8, 210–11, 213–16, 221–26, 228–29, 233, 235, 238–39, 290–91; capacity building approach to, 141, 165, 195–96, 221–22, 224, 226, 290; definition of, 138–39; economic rationale for, 169, 192, 196; in global higher education agenda, 15–16; of higher education, 19, 117; international branding rationale for, 143, 158, 201, 210, 213; knowhow and technology transfer approach to, 141, 195, 222; mutual understanding approach to, 141; networking rationale for, 142, 178, 215, 238; policies of Australia, 169, 201–4; policies of Canada, 169, 210; policies of China, 195, 214, 216; policies of Czech Republic, 229; policies of France, 200; policies of Germany, 196; policies of Hong Kong, 224–26; policies and immigration, 233; policies of Korea, 199; policies of Malaysia, 223; policies of New Zealand, 211, 213; policies of Russia, 112, 207–8; policies of Singapore, 226; policies of Thailand, 229; policies of the United Kingdom, 169, 191–94; policies of the United States, 171, 186–91; political/cultural rationale, 169, 191, 199–200, 207, 238–39; rationales for, 140–44, 169, 228, 238, 291; revenue-generating approach to, 143, 169, 171, 196, 201, 207, 210–11, 229, 238–39; skilled migration approach to, 142, 163, 165, 171, 188, 194–96, 210, 233, 238–39; socio-political approach to, 239; strategic alliance rationale for, 142, 178, 216, 235, 238; strategies, 139–40 326 Index international student mobility, 2–3, 13–17, 31, 34, 77, 113, 125–26, 130, 142, 144, 158–59, 161, 163–65, 167, 189, 228–30, 232, 237–42, 276, 293; and the global higher education agenda, 158–59; and the global higher education market, 113–14; and increasing demand, 34; and international migration, 232–35; regional breakdown of, 229–32; and the rise of market forces, 77–78 Internet, 5, 81–83, 87, 90, 102 Intralearn, 89 Iran, 110; enrollment data, 26, 29f, 246t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; students abroad, 170t, 255t Iraq: enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 170t; 255t Ireland, 12, 29, 39–40, 46, 67, 92, 110–11, 121, 165, 167, 184, 193, 213, 240, 248, 250, 254, 271, 279, 293; enrollment data, 29f, 248t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; export earnings from foreign students, 213; foreign students hosted, 165, 213, 254t; National University of, 92; quality assurance, 67; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 167f, 193, 254t; tuition fees in, 41 Irnerius, 35 ISI Web of Science, 103 Islam, 119–20 Islamic Azad University, 111 Israel, 12–13, 29, 38–39, 46, 89, 170, 247, 251, 256, 277, 279; enrollment data 29f, 247t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 256t; number of clusters, 13; share of households in expenditures, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 170t, 256t Italian, 134 Italy, 22, 26, 29, 38, 163, 166, 168, 170, 182, 184, 199, 219, 221, 228, 246, 250, 254, 279, 291; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 168t, 221, 254t; quality assurance, 66; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 166, 170, 199, 254t iter: Gallicum, 123; Hollandicum, 126; Italicum, 123 ITT Educational, 95, 97 IUT (Institut Universitaire de Technologie), 198 Ivory Coast: students abroad, 199 Jaegellonian University, 122 Jamaica, 38–40, 167, 248, 251, 256, 277; enrollment data, 248t; expenditures per student, 38, 251t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 248t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 167f, 256t James Watt, Japan, 7, 9–13, 22, 26, 29, 38–40, 46, 63–66, 94, 105–7, 112, 129–30, 150–51, 163, 166, 168–69, 172–73, 175–76, 182, 184, 193–94, 203–7, 209–10, 215, 218, 223–24, 233, 239–40, 246t, 250t, 252t, 254t, 271, 277, 291; cost of higher education, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 26, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 163, 168t, 204, 205f, 218, 223–24, 254t; governance, 63–65; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies of, 206–07; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 63–66; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 12; share of households in expenditures, 39f, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 250t; students abroad, 166f, 170t, 173f, 176f, 193, 203, 206f, 209–10, 215, 254t; tuition fees in, 43–44, 252t Jarrat, Sir Alex, 36; report, 36–37, 192 Jena, University of, 124 Jesuits, 123 Jew/Jewish, 119, 130 Index Johns Hopkins University, The, 110, 132, 226 joint degree programs, 106 Jones University, 103 Jordan, 100, 107, 188, 223; enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 165f, 223, 255t; share of households in expenditures, 40f; share of private institutions, 46, 247t; students abroad, 170t, 255t Jundishapur, 119 junior college, 134 Justinian (emperor), 118 Kaiser, 54 Kaiser Wilhelm Gesselschaft, Kanzler, 53 Kaplan University, 103 Kazakhstan: enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 208, 255t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 166f, 255t Kenya, 99; cost of higher education, 253; enrollment data, 22, 248t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 167f, 256t; tuition fees, 253t Kerr, Clark, 76 KIT e–learning, 98 knowledge: as an adjective, 5; –based economy, 291; creation, 13; producers, 12, 234, 239; society, 6; users, 13, 234, 239 KnowledgeNet, 89 Konigsberg, University of, 124 Korea, 7, 9–11, 13, 22, 26, 28–29, 38–40, 46, 65–66, 88, 91, 130, 166, 168–73, 175, 178, 184, 187, 190, 195, 197, 203, 209–10, 215, 218–19, 233, 246, 250, 252, 255; cost of higher education, 252; cyber university project, 88; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 28, 29, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies, 195; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 65–66; R&D indicators, 10t; share of households in expenditures, 40, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 250t; students abroad, 166, 170t, 173f, 175f, 197t, 327 203, 209–10, 215, 219, 255t; tuition fees, 252t Korean, 102 Kunsthochschulen, 195 Kuopio, University of, 85 Kuwait, 100; foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 167f, 256t Kyoto, Imperial University of, 129 Kyrgyzstan: enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 254t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 254t Laos: enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t Latin, 43, 119–20, 164 Latin America and the Caribbean: enrollment data, 25t, 230t; female participation rate, 25t; foreign students hosted, 230t; students abroad, 231t; teaching staff, 25t, tuition fees in, 41 Latvia: cost of higher education, 253; enrollment data, 29f, 248t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; students abroad, 255t; tuition fees in, 43–44, 253 Laureate International, 95, 97–98, 107 lay governance, 65, 67–77, 115, 158, 287 learning management systems (LMS), 88–89; vendor 88 Learning Space, 89 Lebanon, 29, 118, 165, 167–69, 199, 248, 254; enrollment data, 29, 248t; foreign students hosted, 165f, 168t, 254t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; students abroad, 167f, 254t Leicester: University of, 98 Leiden, University of, 124, 126, 128 Leipzig, University of, 124 Lesotho, 277 Levy, Dan, 46 liberal arts, 120 Liebig, Justus von, 282 Liechtenstein, 277 lifelong learning, 15, 31, 92, 133; program, 267 Lingua Franca, 120–21 Lisbon: agenda, 146–47, 234, 291; Convention, 157, 263, 265; strategy, 292 Lithuania: enrollment data, 248t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 256t 328 Index Liverpool, University of, 98 London: School of Economics, 92, 103, 109; Royal Society of, 282, 294; University, 54, 110, 281–82, 287 Louvain, University of, 122 low-income countries: demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; ICT indicators, 10t; income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 11t Loyola Institute of Business Administration, 92 Lunar Society, 282 Luxembourg: foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 256t lyceum, 118 Macao, 163, 165, 225; enrollment data, 249t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 225, 254t; share of private institutions, 249t; students abroad, 254t Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria, 188 Macedonia: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t Macquarie University, 99 Madagascar, 22, 37, 199, 249; enrollment data, 22, 249t; expenditure per student, 37; share of private institutions, 249t; students abroad, 199 madrasa, 119, 290 Malay, 223 Malaysia, 7, 9–12, 22, 29, 38–40, 46, 98, 108, 110, 155, 163, 165–67, 169–70, 172, 178, 180, 193, 203–4, 211, 218–19, 222–24, 226, 229, 239, 247, 251, 254; cost of higher education, 203; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 247t; expenditure per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 222, 254t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies of, 223; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7, 12; quality assurance, 155; R&D indicators, 10t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; students abroad, 166f–67f, 170t, 180f, 193, 203–4, 211, 222f–23, 254t Mali: enrollment data, 28, 29f, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t Malta: enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t Manchester, University of, 110 Maryland, University of, 88 Mauritius, 111–12, 249; enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t Max Planck Institutes, medieval university, 52–53, 75, 120 Meiji Restoration, 6, 45, 129 Melanchton, Philip, 123, 290 Melbourne: University of, 110; Private, 49, 87 Menlo Park, MESDCs (major English speaking destination countries), 8, 76, 106, 143, 164–65, 178–79, 184, 193, 210, 213, 238; forecast of global demand for a place in, 164f Merrill Lynch, 114 Mexico/Mexican, 9–12, 26, 29, 38–40, 46, 66, 85, 96, 136, 166, 172–73, 181, 184, 188, 209, 226–27, 233, 240, 246, 250, 252, 255, 279; cost of higher education, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; quality assurance, 66; R&D indicators, 10t; share of households in expenditures, 40, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 166f, 173f, 181f, 209, 226–27, 255t; tuition fees, 252 Michigan-Ann Arbor, University of, 172 Michigan: State University, 55, 185; University of, 86, 92, 106; Virtual University, 86 Microsoft, 102 Middle East Technical University, 294 middle-income countries: demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; ICT indicators, 10t; income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 11t Middlesex University, 98, 111 Miletus, 117 millenials, 82 Ming (emperor), 123 Minnesota, University of, 106 MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 110, 132, 147, 226; OpenCourseWare, 87 Moldova: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t Index Monash University, 86, 88 Mongolia: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t Montpellier, University of, 52, 121, 125 Morocco, 9–11, 16, 29, 46, 166–67, 170, 195, 197, 199–200, 218–20, 247, 253; cost of higher education, 253; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 29f, 247t; ICT indicators, 10t; national income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 11t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; students abroad, 166f, 167f, 170t, 197t, 199, 219, 220f; tuition fees, 253 Morril Land Grant Act, 133 most favored nation treatment, 276 Motorola University, 101, 103 Mount Holyoke College, 186 movement of: institutions, 16, 114, 135, 237; people, 16, 113, 135; programs, 113, 237; providers, 114 Mozambique: enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 46f, 249t Munich, Technical University of, 110, 112, 226 Muslim, 111, 117, 119, 223–24, 290 Myanmar: enrollment data, 247t; share of private institutions, 247t NAFSA, 136, 189–90, 291 NAFTA, 182, 228 Namibia: enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t Napoleon/Napoleonic, 127–28; University, 127 NARIC (National Academic Recognition Information Centres), 241–42, 265 National Open University, 81 National Technological University, 98 nations (in medieval universities), 120–21 NATO, 135 Natural History Museum, 92 NCES (National Center for Educational Statistics), 84 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 130 Nepal, 111: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t Nestorians, 119 Netherlands/Holland, 13, 38–40, 46, 66–67, 112, 125–26, 163, 165, 219, 247, 250, 253–54, 271, 291; cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 247t; 329 expenditures per student, 38f, 250t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 219, 254t; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 66–67; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 250t; students abroad, 254t; tuition fees, 253 networks, of universities, 91 New Brunswick, University of, 111 New England, University of, 88 new providers, 17, 79–115 New South Wales, University of, 286 New York: Institute of Technology, 193; Public Library, 92; University, 185 New Zealand, 7–11, 13, 63, 66, 89, 91, 94, 105, 109, 112, 136, 154, 163–64, 189–90, 210–13, 217, 233–34, 240, 271, 277–78, 292; cost of higher education, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 29f, 247t; export earnings from foreign students, 143t, 210; foreign students hosted, 163, 165f, 210–12f, 217, 254t; ICT indicators, 10t; internationalization policies of, 211, 213; national income data, 9t; national innovation system 7; number of clusters, 13; Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 287; quality assurance, 63, 66; R&D indicators, 11t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; students abroad, 254t; tuition fees, 43, 252 Newcastle University, 98 Newton, Isaac, 282 NIAD (National Institute for Academic Degrees), 64 NIAD-UE (NIAD- University Evaluation), 64 Niger: enrollment data, 28, 249t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 249t; students abroad, 167f, 256t Nigeria, 112; enrollment data, 29f, 246t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 246t; students abroad, 170t, 181, 193, 256t NIH, 134 NIS (national innovation system), 7–11, 13; definition of, 7; indicators for, 7–11 Nisbis, 119 Nobel Prize, 12, 103, 134, 187, 195, 283, 293 330 Index nontraditional students, 17 nonuniversity institutions, 22–23 North America and Western Europe: enrollment data, 25t, 230t; female participation rate, 25t; foreign students hosted, 230t; students abroad, 231t; teaching staff, 25t North Carolina, University of, 185 Norway, 13, 22, 28–29, 38–40, 66, 100, 155, 165, 167, 194, 228, 247, 250, 253, 255, 277; cost of higher education, 253; enrollment data, 22, 28–29f, 247t; expenditures per student, 38, 250t; foreign students hosted, 165, 255t; internationalization policies of, 228; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 66; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 250t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 167f, 194, 228, 255t; tuition fees, 253t Nottingham, University of, 109 Novell, 105 NSF, 134, 293 Nye, Joseph, 15, 142, 188–89 NYUonline, 86, 89 OBHE (Observatory on Borderless Higher Education), 151, 161; Global Education Index of Companies, 287 OECD, 37, 137, 156, 158, 161–62, 240; average expenditure per student, 38f, 251t; definition of private institutions, 44 OECD-IMHE (Institutional Management in Higher Education program), 57 OECD-UNESCO Guidelines, 156–57, 242 offshore/offshoring, 12, 15, 19, 106, 108–9, 203–4, 208, 218, 223, 225, 229, 241, 243, 276 Ohio State University, 172 OLA (Open Learning Institute), 104–5 Oman: enrollment data, 249t; share of private institutions, 249t online courses, 84–85 Online University Consortium, 103 Onshore, 106 Open Universiteit, 81 Open University, 22, 80, 110, 192, 287; Worldwide Ltd., 100, 108 Orleans, University of, 52 OSRD (Office of Scientific Research and Development), 134 outsourcing, 6, 12, 88 Owens College, 54 Oxford, University of, 54, 92, 121, 125, 131, 287 Padua, University of, 121, 125–26, 290 Pakistan, 29, 110, 169, 172, 193, 247, 256; enrollment data, 29, 247t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 193, 256t Palestine: enrollment data, 248t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 255t Panama, 98, 188, 277 papal: bull, 52; states, 124 Paraguay, 38–39, 46, 248, 251, 277; enrollment data, 248t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t parens sciantarium, 52 Paris, University of, 52, 120–22 Patrice Lumumba People’s Friendship University, 137 PCFC (Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council), 59 Pearson Education, 103 Pennsylvania University, 184; World Campus, 86 Pergamum, 118 Perkin, William Henry, 282 Perry (commodore), Peru: enrollment data, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 256t Philippines, 26, 29, 38–40, 46, 105, 108, 246, 251–52, 255; cost of higher education, 25t; enrollment data, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39, 251t; students abroad, 255t; tuition fees, 252t Phoenix, University of, 95, 99, 103; Online, 95 Index Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Pisa, University of, 122 Plato, 118–19 Plotinius, 118 Poland, 26, 29, 38, 40, 46, 67, 120, 124, 166, 188, 195, 197, 199, 233, 246, 250, 253, 255, 272, 277; cost of higher education, 253; enrollment data, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38, 250t; foreign students hosted, 255t; quality assurance, 67; share of households in expenditures, 40, 250t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; students abroad, 166f, 197t, 255t; tuition fees, 253t polymath, 119 Porphyry, 118 Portugal, 22, 29, 38–40, 46, 66, 120, 125, 163, 165, 247, 250, 253; cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 247t; expenditures per student, 38, 250t; foreign students hosted, 163, 165f, 254t; quality assurance, 66; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 250t; students abroad, 254t; tuition fees, 253t Powell, Colin, 188 PriceWaterHouseCoopers (PwC), 88 Priestley, Joseph, 4, 282 private institutions, 44–52, 115 Project Atlas, 161 PROPHE (Program for Research into Higher Education), 286 proprietary schools, 93 Protestant, 55, 124–25, 127, 290; Reformation, 53 Prussia, 128 Ptolemy, 118–19 Purdue University, 172 Putin, Vladimir, 208 Pythagoras, 117 QAA (Quality Assurance Agency), 61, 155, 258, 287 Qatar, 107, 165, 167, 229, 239, 255; Education City, 107; foreign students hosted, 165f, 255t; students abroad, 167f, 255t Qestia Media Inc., 89 quality assurance/assessment/evaluation, 59–67, 154–55, 228, 240, 257–58, 287; in transnational higher education, 154–58 quasi-market, 68, 73 331 Raffles: La Salle, 98; Education Group, 110 Rand Corporation, 92 rankings of universities: Shanghai Jiao Tong, 75–76; Times Higher Education Supplement, 75 Reagan, Ronald, 35 Reformation, 122, 124 Rhodes Colleges Inc., 96 Rice, Condoleezza, 190 Robert College, 105 Rochester Institute of Technology, 107 Roebuck, John, 282 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 283 Roger Williams University, 49, 107 rogue providers, 79, 126 Roma/Roman, 118 Romania, 37, 43, 46, 111, 168, 199, 247, 253–54; cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 247t; expenditure per student, 37; foreign students hosted, 168, 254t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; students abroad, 199, 254t; tuition fees in, 43, 253t Ross University, 96 Royal: College of Surgeons, 111; Institution, 4, 282 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, 49, 110–11 Russia/Russian/USSR, 9–11, 14, 21–22, 26, 29, 37, 41, 43, 46, 89, 92, 111–12, 137, 163, 166, 168, 173, 180–82, 188, 194–95, 197, 199, 207–8, 216, 233, 246, 253–54, 286; cost of higher education, 253; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 21–22, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditure per student, 37; foreign students hosted, 163f, 168, 207f, 216, 254t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies of, 112, 207–8; national income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 14; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; students abroad, 166f, 173f, 181f, 194, 197t, 199, 208, 254t; tuition fees in, 41, 43, 253t Saint Petersburg, University of, 111 Salerno, 121 Santo Domingo, University of, 123 Santo Tomas, University of, 123 Sassanian Empire, 119 SAT, 291 332 Index Saudi Arabia, 100, 168–69, 247, 255; enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 168t, 169, 255t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 255t Schumpeter, Joseph, Science Museum, 92 Scientific Revolution, 3, 126, 283 Scotland/Scottish: cost of higher education, 253t; Qualifications Authority, 89; tuition fees, 42, 253t; universities, 3, 121, 125, 127 Senegal, 37, 199, 248; enrollment data, 248t; expenditure per student, 37; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 199 Serbia Montenegro: foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 256t Service de la cooperation Culturelle et Technique, 135 Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 226; university ranking, 75–76, 110 shih, 117 Sicily, 120 Singapore, 7–13, 22, 29, 88, 91–92, 98–99, 106, 110–12, 167–68, 188, 203–4, 218, 226–27, 229, 239, 248, 252, 255, 289, 294; cost of higher education, 252; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 248t; foreign students hosted, 255t; ICT indicators, 11t; Institute of Management (SIM), 106, 110, 289; internationalization policies of, 226; national income data, 9t; national innovation system, 7; National University of, 88, 92, 226; number of clusters, 13; R&D indicators, 10t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 167, 203–4, 226, 227f, 255t; tuition fees, 252t Slovakia, 167, 248, 255, 272; enrollment data, 248t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 167f, 255t Slovenia: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t Smartthinking.com, 89 Smith College, 186 Socrates, 281; program, 267 soft power, 188–89, 242 Somalia: foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 256t Sophists, 117 Sorbonne Declaration, 144 South Africa, 13, 108–9, 112, 155, 163, 165, 168, 223, 239–40, 246t, 253–54; cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 246t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 168t, 254t; number of clusters, 13; quality assurance, 155; share of private institutions, 246t; students abroad, 254t; tuition fees, 253t South Australia: University of, 99 South Wales, University of, 110 South and West Asia: enrollment data, 25t, 230t; female participation rate, 25t; foreign students hosted, 230t; students abroad, 231t; teaching staff, 25t Southern California, University of, 172 Southern Queensland, University of, 88, 110 Soviet system, 6, 28 Spain, 22, 29, 38–40, 46, 107–8, 119, 125, 163, 166, 184, 193, 199, 219, 228, 246, 251, 254, 279, 291; enrollment data 22, 29f, 246t; expenditure per student 38f, 251t, 291; foreign students hosted, 163f, 219, 228, 254t; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 166, 193, 199, 254t Spanish, 102, 123, 127 Sri Lanka, 99; foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 256t St Andrews, University of, Stanford University, 90, 106, 110, 132, 184, 226 Stephenson, Robert, 281 Stradonitz, Friedrich August von Kekule von, 282 Strayer Education Inc., 95, 98 Strasbourg, University of, 124 Strobe, 118 STS, 198–99 Sub-Saharan Africa, 9–11, 25, 27–28, 230–31, 235; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 25, 27–28, 230t; foreign students hosted, 230t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 10t; students abroad, 231t Sun Microsystems, 90 Sunway Group, 109 Index SUNY (State University of New York), 86; at Albany, 286; Buffalo, 107 Sweden, 22, 29, 38–39, 46, 91, 100, 163, 226, 247, 251, 253–54, 272, 277, 279; cost of higher education, 253; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 247t; expenditure per student, 38, 251t; foreign students hosted, 163, 254t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 254t Switzerland, 11, 22, 29, 38–39, 46, 122, 163, 165, 194, 247, 251, 253–54, 272, 277, 291; enrollment data, 22, 29f, 247t; expenditure per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 165f, 254t; share of private institutions, 46f, 247t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 194, 254t; tuition fees, 253t Sylvan International Universities, 97 Syracuse University, 103 Syria: foreign students hosted, 256t; students abroad, 170, 256t Syriac, 119 TAFE (technical and further education), 31 Taiwan, 22, 46, 111, 130, 168, 172–73, 175–76, 178, 187, 193, 203, 213, 233, 246, 252, 255, 277, 279; cost of higher education, 252; enrollment data, 22, 246t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; students abroad, 173f, 175f, 193, 203, 213, 255t; tuition fees, 252t Tajikistan: enrollment data, 248t; foreign students hosted, 255t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 255t Tamil, 223 Tanzania: cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 28; tuition fees, 253t Tata Group, 99 teaching staff, breakdown by region, 25t technische hochschulen, 129 technology: impact of, 80–91 Temple University, 87, 106 Texas: University of, 86, 172, 185; A&M University, 107, 132 Thailand, 22, 26, 29, 38–39, 46, 92, 111–12, 66, 172–73, 178–79, 203, 219, 229, 239–40, 246, 251, 255, 290–91; cost of higher education, 203; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 29f, 246t, 333 291; expenditures per student, 38, 251t; foreign students hosted, 229, 255t; internationalization policies of, 229; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 166f, 173, 179f, 203, 229; 255t Thales, 117, 281 Than Long University, 48 Thatcher, Margaret, 35, 192 Thomson; Corporation, 102–3, 289; Learning, 92 Titan Schools Inc., 96 TOEFL, 103 Tokyo, University of, 45, 92, 129 Toledo, 120 transnational higher education, 16, 17, 113, 138, 144, 147, 151, 154–55, 218, 226, 240–43 Trevitchik, Richard, 281 Trinidad and Tobago, 277 Trinity College, 54 TRIPs (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), 275 Troy, University of, 105 tuition fees, 36–44, 115, 126, 211; in Continental Europe, 40; in the United Kingdom, 40–41 Tulane University, 103 Tunisia, 38, 100, 167, 199, 251, 255; expenditures per student 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 255t; students abroad, 167f, 199, 255t Turin, University of, 122 Turkey, 22, 26, 29, 38–40, 46, 105, 163, 171–73, 175, 177–78, 184, 194–97, 218, 221–22, 233, 240, 246, 251, 253–54, 277, 279, 281, 287, 291, 293–94; cost of higher education, 253t; enrollment data, 22, 26f, 29f, 246t, 287, 291, 293–94; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 163f, 254t; internationalization policies of, 221; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 173f, 177f, 194, 197t, 221f–22, 254t; tuition fees, 253t twinning, 106–7, 229 334 Index UFC (Universities Funding Council), 59 Uganda: enrollment data, 248t; share of private institutions, 46f, 248t UGC (University Grants Committee), 59, 287 UHA (Universitetsoch Hogskoleambetet), 57, 72 Ukraine, 26, 29, 46, 92, 163, 166, 195, 197, 233, 254; enrollment data, 26f, 29f; foreign students hosted, 163f, 254t; share of private institutions, 46f; students abroad, 166f, 197t, 254t UMass Online, 87 UMUCOnline, 87 UN, 188 unbundling of services, 83 UNESCO, 23, 28, 37, 51, 137, 155–58, 161–62, 263, 292–93; -CEPES, 264, 286; definition of internationally mobile students, 161 UNext, 103 United Arab Emirates, 96, 107, 109, 223 United Kingdom/ U.K./ Britain, 7–15, 21–23, 26, 28–29, 35–36, 38–41, 44–45, 47, 59–82, 88–89, 91–93, 96, 98–100, 102–3, 105, 107–12, 135, 143–44, 147, 151, 154–55, 163–65, 168–69, 170, 173, 182, 184, 189–95, 197, 199–204, 208, 210, 215–18, 221–26, 228–29, 233–34, 238–40, 246, 251, 254, 272, 286–87, 291, 294; cost of higher education, 203; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 21–22, 26f, 29, 246t; e-university, 287; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; export earnings from foreign students, 143, 192; foreign students hosted, 163f, 168, 191f, 193, 200, 208, 215, 217–18, 221–26, 228–29, 254t; ICT indicators, 11t; internationalization policies of, 191–93; national income data, 9t; number of clusters, 13; policies of internationalization, 192; quality assurance, 60–63; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 12, 15; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 173f, 197, 254t; tuition fees, 39–41 United States/U.S./USA, 4, 7–14, 21–23, 26, 28–29, 32, 35–38, 40, 43–44, 46–47, 49, 55, 57, 59–60, 62, 67, 74–75, 77, 82, 84–86, 88–89, 91–100, 102–5, 107, 110–12, 114, 125, 134–36, 143, 147–48, 150–51, 153–54, 157, 163–66, 168, 170–91, 193, 195, 199–200, 208–10, 215–19, 221–26, 228–29, 233–35, 238–40, 242, 246, 251, 263, 272, 277–79, 286–88, 292–94; College Access and Opportunities Act, 94; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 21–22, 26f, 29f, 246t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; export earnings from foreign students, 143t, 172; foreign students hosted, 163f, 168t, 165f, 171f, 173f–77f, 178f–83, 200, 208, 217–19, 221–26, 228–29; Higher Education Act, 94; ICT indicators, 11t; international scholars hosted, 184f; internationalization policies of, 186–91; national income data, 9t; number of clusters, 13; Open University, 100, 288; quality assurance, 59–60, 67; R&D indicators, 10t; scientific production, 12, 23; share of households in expenditures, 40f, 251t; share of private institutions, 46f, 246t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 166f, 185, 193, 199, 209; tuition fees in, 44, 253t Universidad Estatal a Distancia, 81 Universidad Interamericana, 98 Universidad Nacional de Education Distancia, 81 Universidade Aberta, 81 Universita della terza Eta e del tempo disponibile, 81 Universita Terbuka, 81 Universitas, 21, 91–92, 226 Universite de France, 53, 127 Universite Laval, 15 Universiteit Nyenrode, 112 University Alliance, 103 Uruguay, 38–39, 46, 153, 248, 251, 255, 275, 277; enrollment data, 248t; expenditures per student, 38f, 251t; foreign students hosted, 255t; Round, 153, 275; share of private institutions, 46, 248t; share of private sources in expenditures, 39f, 251t; students abroad, 255t Index USDE (United States Department of Education), 60 Utrecht, University of, 128 Uzbekistan: enrollment data, 247t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 247t; students abroad, 256t Van Lang University, 48 Venezuela, 89; enrollment data, 22, 246t; foreign students hosted, 256t; share of private institutions, 246t; students abroad, 256t Vesalius, Andreas, 122 Victoria and Albert Museum, 92 Vietnam, 9–11, 46, 48, 107, 112, 180, 199, 223, 246, 256; demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 29, 246t; foreign students hosted, 256t; ICT indicators, 11t; national income data, 9t; R&D indicators, 10t; share of private institutions, 46, 246t; students abroad, 180f, 199, 256t Villanova University, 103 virtual: arms, 83, 86; higher education institutions, 80; universities, 99–102, 114 Virtual Temple, 87, 89 Walden University, 98 Wales, 42 Warrington Academy, 282 Warwick, University of, 110 Washington: Accord, 240; University of, 184 Watt, James, 281–82 WebCT technology, 85, 89 Wedgewood, Josiah, 281–82 Western Governors University, 99–100 Western International University, 95–96 335 Wharton Business School, 110 Wisconsin, University of, 103, 185; Learning Innovation Center, 86 Wittenberg, University of, 124, 290 Wollongong, University of, 109–11 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 92 Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 103 world: demographic data, 9t; educational data, 9t; enrollment data, 25t, 249t; female participation rate, 25t; foreign students, 256t; ICT indicators, 10t; R&D indicators, 11t; share of private institutions, 249t; teaching staff, 25t World Bank, 37, 137 World Patent Index, 103 World Universities Network, 92 world wide web, 5, 83, 87, 102 WTO, 149–50, 153, 157, 277–79, 292 Wurzburg, University of, 124, 283 Deng Xiaoping, 6, 13, 213 Y2K, 12 Yahoo!, 90 Yale University, 92, 132, 184 York, University of, 92 Youth program, 267 Zambia, 99 Zedong, Mao, 26, 213 Zeming, Jian, 27 Zimbabwe, 168; enrollment data, 29f, 248t; share of private institutions, 248t; students abroad, 167f Zoroastrians, 119 Zurich, University of, 283 This page intentionally left blank EDUCATION Higher Education and International Student Mobility in the Global Knowledge Economy Kemal Gürüz “Gürüz does a nice job of relating the theme of mobility to the historical development of higher education and other trends over time He brings an important cross-cultural perspective to the topic.” — Philip G Altbach, coeditor of The Racial Crisis in American Higher Education: Continuing Challenges for the Twenty-first Century, Revised Edition “The book is a grand sweep of the history of higher education from an international comparative perspective, with country-by-country descriptions of institutional patterns, enrollments, governance, recent trends in relationships to the state, the emergence and growth of private institutions, the diversification of revenues, and the increasing internationalization of knowledge, students, scholars, and institutional providers.” — D Bruce Johnstone, coeditor of Cost-sharing and Accessibility in Higher Education: A Fairer Deal? State University of New York Press www.sunypress.edu .. .HIGHER EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY IN THE GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY This page intentionally left blank HIGHER EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY IN THE GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE. .. KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY Kemal Gürüz State University of New York Press Published by State University of New York Press, Albany © 2008 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States... Origin of Foreign Students in the United States, 1994–2005 Indian Students in the United States Chinese Students in the United States Korean Students in the United States Japanese Students in the