Victor E Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini What is What in the Nanoworld A Handbook on Nanoscicnce and Nanotechnology Victor E Bovisenko and Stefano Ossicini What is What in the Nanoworld A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology WILEYVCH WTLEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA Viklor E Roriscnko Belarusian Statc University Minyk, Uclarus e-mail: boriscnko@bsuir.unibel.by Thiq book was carefully produced Neverthclcss, authors and publisher not warrant the information conlained therein to bc free of errors Readers are advised to kecp in mind thar slatemenls, data, illustrations, procedural details or olher items may inadvcrtcntly be inaccurale Stcfano Ossicini Universily ol Modcna and Reggio Emilia Reggio Emilia, Italy e-mail: ossicini@)uniinore.il Library of Cnngress Card Nu.: applied For British Library Cataloging-in-PublicationData: A cat&gue record tor this book is available from the Rnlrsh Library Authors Bibliographic information published by Die 1)eutsche Bibliuthek Uic Dcutsche Bibliolhek listq thi5 publication in the Deutsche Nationalhibliografic; detailed bibliographic dala is available in thc Internet at ihtrp:l/dnb.ddb.der 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Wcinheim All rights reserved (including thosc of translation into other languages) No part of this hook may be reproduccd in any form - nor transmitled or translated into machine language without writtcn permission from the publishers Registercd namcs, trademarks, elc used in this book, even when not specilically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotcctcd by law Printcd in the Federal Republic of C;crmany Printed on acid-ltee papcr Printing Strauss GmbH, Morlenbach Bookbinding Litges & Dopf Buchbindcrei GmbH, Heppenheim Contents Preface Sources of Information Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas Key Words A: From Abbe's principle to Azbe1'-Kaner Cyclotron Resonance B: From B92 Protocol to Burstein-Moss Shift C: From Caldeira-Leggett Model to Cyclotron Resonance D: From D'Alamhert Equation to Dynamics E: From (e,2e) Reaction to Eyring Equation F: From Fabry-P&ot Resonator to FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum) G: From Galvanoluminescence to Gyromagnetic Frequency H: From Habit Plane to Hyperelastic Scattering I: From Image Force to Tsotropy (of Matter) J: From Jahn-Teller Effect to Joule's Law of Electric Beating K: From Kane Model to Kuhn-Thomas-Reiche Sum Rule L: From Lagrange Equation of Motion to Lyman Series M: From Macroscopic Long-range Quantum Interference to Multiquantum Well N: From NAA (Neutron Activation Analysis) to Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem v1 Contents 0: From Octet Rule to Oxide 204 P: From Paraffins to Pyrolysis 208 Q: From Q-control to Qubit 230 R: From Rabi Flopping to Rydberg Gas 245 S: From Saha Equation to Symmetry Group 257 T: From Talbot's Law to Type Superconductors 295 U: From Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) to Urbach Rule 307 V: From Vacancy to von Neumann Machine 310 W: From Waidner-Burgess Standard to Wyckoff Notation 315 X: From XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy) to XRD (X-ray Diffraction) 323 Y: From Young's Modulus to Yukawa Potential 325 Z: From Zeeman Effect to Zone Law of Weiss 326 Appendix A Main Properties of Intrinsic (or 1,ightly Doped) Semiconductors Preface There's Plenty cfRoarn ctt the Rottom Richard P Feynmnn 19.59 Thew's even more Room at the Top Jean-Murie Lehn 1995 Nanotechnology and nanoscience are concerned with material science and its application at, or around, the nanometer scale (1 nm = 10-' m, billionth of a meter) The nanoscale can be reached either from the top down, by machining to smaller and smaller dimensions, or from the bottom up, by exploiting the ability of molecules and biological systems to selfassemble into tiny structures individual inorganic and organic nanostructures involve clusters, nanoparticles, nanocrystals, quantum dots, nanowires, and nanotubes, while collections of nanostructures involve arrays, assemblies, and superlattices of individual nanostructures Rather than a new specific areii of science, nanoscience is a new way of thinking Its revol~tion~ary potential lies in its intrinsic multidisciplinarity Its development and successes depend strongly on efforts from, and fruitful interactions among, physics, chemistry, mathematics, life sciences, and engineering This handbook intends to contribute to a broad comprehension of what are nanoscience and nanotcchnology It is an introductory, reference handbook that summarizes terms and definitions, most important phenomena, regulations, experimental and theoretical tools discovered in physics, chemistry, technology and thc applicalion of nanostructures We present a representative collcction of fundamental terms and most important supporting definitions taken From general physics and quantum mechanics, material science and technology, mathematics and information theory, organic and inorganic chemistry, solid slate physics and biology As a result, fast progressing nanoelectronics and optoelectronics, molecular electronics and spintronics, nanofabrication and -manufacturing, bioengineering and quantum processing of informalion, an area of fundamental importance for the information sclciety of the 21 st century, are covered More than 1300 entries, from a few sentences to a page in length, are given, for beginners to professionals The book is organized as follows: Tenns and definitions are arranged in alphabetical order Those printed in bold within an article have extended details in their alphabetical place Each Whrrl i,v Whrd in I ~ Nunnno,.ld A tlunrfiook on Nun~crence I I Nunotccl~no/o,~y P U ~ V~clnr nnriwikn and Sirfano Ossicini E Copyright 63 2004 Wiley-VCH Verlng GmbH & Co KCi;ll\, Weinhcim ISRN: 3-527-40493-7 VIII Prefuce section in the book interprets the term or definition under consideration and briefly presents the main features of the phenomena behind it The great majority of the terms have additional information in the form of notes such as "First described in: ", "Recognition: ", "More derails in: ",thus giving a historical perspective of the subject with reference to further sources of extended information, which can be articles, books, review articles or websites This makes it easier for the willing reader to reach a deeper insight Bold characters in formulas synlholize vectors and matrices while normal characters are scalar quantities Symbols and constants of a general nature are handled consistently throughout the book (see Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas) They are used according to the TUPAP convention The book will help undergraduate and Ph D students, teachers, researchers and scientific managers to understand properly the language used in modern nanoscience and nanotechnology It will also appeal to readers from outside the nanoworld community, in particular to scientific journalists Comments and proposals related to the book will be appreciated and can be sent to borisenkom bsuir.unibel.by andor to ossicini @unirnore.it It is a pleasure for us to acknowledge our colleagues who have supported this work Their contribution ranges from writing and correction of some particular articles to critical comments and useful advice In particular, we wish to thank (in alphabetical order) F Arnaud d7Avitaya,L J Balk, C M Bertoni, V P Bondarenko, E Degoli, J Derrien, R Di Felice, P Facci, H Fuchs, N V Gaponenko, S V Gaponenko, L I Ivanenko, G F Karpinchik, S Y Kilin, S K Lazarouk, E Luppi, I? Manghi, R Magri, M Michailov, D B Migas, V V Nelaev, L Pavesi, N A Poklonski, S L Prischepa, V L Shaposhnikov, G Treglia, G P Yablonskii, A Zaslavsky Victor E Rorisenko and Stefano Ossicini Minsk and Modena-Reggio Emilia April 2004 Sources of Information Besides personal knowledge and experience and the scientific journals and books cited in the text, the authors also used the following sources of information: Encyclopedias and Dictionaries [I] Encyclopedic Dictionary cfPhysirs, edited by J Thewlis, R G Glass, D J Hughes, A R.Meetham (Pergamon Press, Oxford 1961) [2] Dictionary of Physics and Mathematics, edited by D N Lapedes (McGraw Hill Book Company, New York 1978) 131 Landolt-Bornstein Nurneriral Data and Functional Relationships in Srience and Technology, Vol 17, edited by Madelung, M Schultz, H Weiss (Springer, Berlin 1982) 141 Encyclopedia ofElec~ronirs Computers, edited by C Hammer (McGraw Hill Book and Company, New York 1984) 151 Encyclopedia of Semirondurtor Technology, edited by M Grayson (John Wiley k Sons, New York 1984) [6] EncycVop~diaof Physics, edited by R G Lerner, G L Trigg (VCH Publishers, New York 1991) [7] Physics Encycloprdia, edited by A M Prokhorov, Vols 1-5 (Bolshaya Rossijsknya En cyklopediya, Moscow 1998) - in Russian [8] Enryclopedia ofApplied Physics, Vols 1-25, edited by G L Trigg (Wiley VCH, Weinheim 1992-2000) 191 Eriryrlopedia of Physicnl Sciencu and Technology, Vols 1-1 8, edited by R A Meyers (Academic Press, San Diego 2002) edited by B Bhushan (Springer, Berlin 2004) [lo] Handbook of Nanot~chnolo,qy, Books 11 I L Landau, E Lifshitz, Quantum Mr~rharzirs (Addison-Wesley, 1958) Solid State P h y ~ i c ~ Wiley & Sons, New York 1962) (John C Kittel, El~mentaly C Kittel, Quantum Theory of solid^ (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1963) J Pankove, Optiral Proresses in Srrniconductor~(Dover, New Yurk 1971) F Bassani, G Pastori Parravicini, Electronic and Optical Properties of Solids (Pergamon Press, London 1975) [6] W.A Harrison, Elertronir Structure and the Prop(~rtie,r Solids (W.H Freeman & Comof pany, San Francisco 1980) [2] [3] [4] [5] W h d t v W l m LI Ihe Nrorowot'lri: A Handbook on Nanosornw rind Nfmolr~hn~ology Victor E Barisenlo and Stefano Ossicini Cnpyright 2004 Wilcy.VCH Vcrlag GmbH & Crr KFnA Wrirtlieiln ISRN: 3-527-411401-7 [7] J D Watson, M Gilman, J Witkowski, M Zoller, Recombinant DNA (Scientific American Books, New York 1992) [XI N Peyghambarian, S W Koch, A Mysyrowicz, Introduction to Sernirondurtor Optic5 (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 1993) 191 H Haug, S W Koch, Quantum Theory of the Uptiral and Electronic Properties of Semi(World Scientific, Singapore 1994) condurtor,~ [lo] G B Arfken, H J Weber, Matht.matica1 Method.s,for Physicists (Academic Press, San Diego 1995) [ l 11 W Borchardt-Ott, Crystallogrq>h,y, Second cdition (Springer, Berlin 1995) [12] J H Ditvies The Physic5 oj Low-Dimensional Sernirondurtors (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995) [13] DNA hased Computers edited by R Lipion, E Baum (American Mathematical Society, Providence 1995j [I 41 S Hiifner, Photoelectron Spectrosc~p~y (Springer, Berlin 1995) 1151 L E Ivchenko, G Pikus, Suprlnttices and Other Heterostructurr~:Symmetry and other Optical Phenomena (Springer, Berlin 1995) [I61 M S Dresselhaus, G Dressclhaus, P Bklund, Science of Fullrrenes and Carbon Nanotubes (Academic Press, San Dicgo 1996) [17] C Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Plzysirs, Seventh edition (John Wiley Rr Sonc, New York 1996) [ 181 P Y Yu, M Cardona, Fundummtuls o f Sernirondurtors (Springer, Berlin 1996) [ 191 D K Ferry, S M Goodnick, Trunsport in Nanostructures (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1997) 1201 S V Gaponenko, Optical Proprrties of Sernirnndurtor NanocrymL (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998) [21] C Mrthler, V A Weberrus, Quantum Networks: Ilynamics of Open Nanostructures (Springer, New York 1998) 1221 Molerular Electronics: Science and Terhnology edited by A Aviram, M Ratner (Acadcmy of Sciences, New York 1998) [23] S Sugano, H Koizumi, Microcluster physic.^ (Springer, Berlin 1998) 1241 D Bimberg, M Grundman, N N Ledentsov, Quantum Dot Heterostrurtures (John Wiley and Sons, London 1999) [25] R C O'Handley, Modern Magn~tic Mutrrials: Principles and Applicatiom (Wiley, New York 1999) [26] E Rietman, Molerular Engineeririg oj'Nunosyskms (Springer, New York 2000) 1271 G Alber, T Beth, M Horodecki, P Horodecki, R Horodccki, M Retteler, H Weinfurter, R Werner, A Zcilinger, Quantum Injbrmution (Springer, Berlin 2001) 1281 P W Atkins, J De Paula, Physiral Chemistry (Oxford University Prcss, Oxford 2001) 1291 K Sakoda, Optical Properties of Phntonic Cry~tals (Springer, Berlin 2001) 1301 Y Inlri, Introduction to Mesosropic Physics (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002) 13 I J Nariostructurrd Materials and Nanotechnology, edited by H S Nalwa (Academic Press, London 2002) 324 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy First Jesrribd in: W Friedrich, P Knipping, M Laue, Sitzungsber Bayer Akad Wiss (Math Phys Klasse), 303 (1912) Recognition: in 1914 M Lauc received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the diffraction of Rontgen rays by crystals See also www.nobel.selphysics/laureatesll914/index.html X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy - a technique of nondestructive elemental analysis of condensed matter When a material is bombarded by high-energy photons or electrons, some of the electrons in the atoms of the material are ejected As the other electrons occupy the vacated levels, quanta of radiation, characteristic of the atom, are emitted Such quanta in the form of X-rays can be detected by either a wavelength dispersive or an energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer Thus, particular atoms can be recognized The technique makes it possible to detect and analyze all atoms down to boron with a lower limit of detection down 10 a few particles per million X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) - the technique for study composition and electrcmic states in solids using photo-ionization and energy dispersive analysis of photoelectrons emitted under X-ray illumination of the sample It is based upon a single photon inlelectron out process, The energy of the X-ray photons ranges from 100 cV to 10 keV In XPS the photon is absorbed by an atom in a molecule or solid, leading to ionization and the emission of a core (inner shell) electron In contrast to ultraviolet photoelectron by spectroscopy (UPS), the photon interacts with valence electrons leading to ioni~ation their removal from atoms or molecules The kinetic energy distribution of the emitted photoelectrons can be measured using any appropriate electron-energy analy~er and a photoelectron spectrum can thus be recorded Photoionization of an atom A can be considered as A +hm + AS f r - Energy conservation requires E ( A ) +hv = E(A+) +E(eP) Since thc energy of the photoelectron ( c - ) is present solely as kinetic energy (Ekln) can be rearranged to give the following this expression for it: Eh,= hz/ - ( E ( A + ) - E ( A ) ) The final term in brackets, representing the difference in energy between the ioni~ed and neutral atoms, is generally called the binding of energy (Ehm) the electron This then h d s to the following commonly quoted equation: Elu, = h v - Ebln Note that the binding energies in solids are conventionally measured with respect to the Fermi level, rather than the vacuum level This involves a small correction to the equation given above in order to account for the work function of the solid Each chemical element has a characteristic binding energy associated with each core atomic orbital, i e each element will give rise to a characteristic set of peaks in the photoelectron spectrum at kinetic energies determined by the photon energy and the respective binding energies The presence of peaks at particular energies therefore indicates the presence of a specilic element in the sample Furthermore, the intenqity of the peaks is related to the concentration of the element within the sampled region Thus, the technique is capable of yielding a quantitative analysis and is sometimes known by the alternative acronym, ESCA, that is electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis Recognition: in 1981 K M Siegbahn received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy See also www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/l98l/indcx.html XRT) - acronym for X-ray diffraction analysis Y: From Young's Modulus to Yukawa Potential Young's modulus - the ratio of a simple tension stress applied to a material to the resulting strain parallel to the tension Yukawa potential describes the strong short-range interaction between nucleons: V ( r ) = ( A l r )~ x p ( - r l h ) wherc r is the distance, and A and b are constants giving measures of the , strength and range of the force, respectively Fimt described in: H Yukawa, Intrnrction of elementary particles, Proc Phys Math Soc Jpn 17,48-57 (1935) Recognition: in 1949 H Yukawa received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his prediction of thc existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces See also www.nohel.se/physics/li~ureates/l92l/index.html Wltor is Wlrar i ~ rlre Nunoworld: A Handbook on Nsnoscrrncr and N n ? ~ o l r c h n o l ~ , ~ ~ t Victor t Borisenko md Stcfano Ossicini Copyright D 2004 Wilcy-VCH Vcrlag GmbH & Cu KGaA Wcinhe~rrl ISBN: 3-527-40491.7 Z: From Zeeman Effect to Zone Law of Weiss Zeeman effect - splitting of electron energy levels of electrons in an external magnetic field related to different spins of electrons It is characterized by the so-called Zeeman term g p 13 ~ with the free-electron spin g-factor of about 2, where B is the induction of the external magnetic field applied, The normal Zeeman effect is the observation of three lines in the emission spectrum wherc, in the absence of the field, there was only one In the anomalous Zeeman effect the original line splits into more than three components This relates to the anomalous magnetic moment of electron spin, and when spin is present the spin and orbital magnetic moments interact with the field in a more complicated way than in its absence First described by P Zeeman in 1896 Rerogrzitiorz: in 1902 P Zeeman received the Nobel P r i ~ e Physics shared with H A in Lorentz in recognition of the extraordinrrsy service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena l902/index.html See also www.nobel.se/physicdlaureates/ Zener effect - interband tunneling, in which electrons tunnel from one band to another through the forbidden energy gap of the solid The presence of an external electric field in a periodic lattice potential causes transitions between the allowed energy bands in the crystal First described in: C Zener, A theory of t h electrical brvakdown of solid dielertrirs, Proc ~ R Soc London, Ser A 145,523-529 (1 934) Zeno paradox - motion is impossible because before reaching a goal one has to get halfway there Before that, one had to get halfway to the midpoint, etc zeolite - a crystalline AI-0-Si material with regularly arranged cages of about nm size It contains some very closely held water, which can be expelled by heat and reabsorbed from a moist atmosphere without affecting the crystalline structure of the mineral zinc blende structure can be considered as the diamond structure in which two interpenetrating face centered cubic lattices contain different atoms The compound ZnS gives its name to this type of lattice Other materials crystallizing with the same lattice are A"'B~ compounds zone law uf Weiss states that the condition for a crystal face (Izkl) to lie in the zone [(IV W ] isUh+Vk+Wl=0 Wtof is W?mt in the Nartoworld: A Handhnokon Nano,wiencrand Nunolrchnolrr~y, Viclor R Borixmku and Stcfmo Ossicini (: