Nuclear Energy FIFTH EDITION Nuclear Energy An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes FIFTH EDITION Raymond L Murray Nuclear Engineering Department, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 USA To Elizabeth Preface to the Fifth Edition AT THE transition to the new millennium the future of nuclear energy looks brighter Nuclear power plants worldwide have operated safely Applications for extension of reactor operating licenses in the U.S are in place and construction is continuing abroad Uses of isotopes and radiation in applications to medicine, research, and industry continue to assure human benefit Research and development are active in the areas of controlled fusion, accelerator uses, isotope separation, space exploration, and excess weapons material disposition Unfortunately, progress toward solutions for the nuclear waste problem has been frustratingly slow And there are no new orders for nuclear plants in the U.S Controversies surround the validity of the linear no-threshold model of the effect of low-level radiation and the anticipated consequences to climate of the buildup of greenhouse gases It is the author’s firm belief that nuclear power will be necessary in the twenty-first century, as world population continues to grow, expectations for a better life are sought, and energy demands increase The phenomenon of the Internet is dramatically changing communication of information and knowledge, including education at all levels This new edition of the book includes citations to sites on the World Wide Web in addition to references in the print media The author has explored the Web extensively, searching for sites that are relevant, useful, and accurate However, the reader must beware of sites t at become h outdated or vanish Further comments on the Internet appear in the Appendix A few new Exercises are included in the fifth edition The diskette containing programs in BASIC for use with Computer Exercises is now available free of charge on request from the author The author hopes that the book will continue to serve in the orientation and education of the next generation of nuclear professionals and leaders, as well as being helpful to scientists and engineers in related fields Communication b e-mail (murray@eos.ncsu.edu) with teachers, students, y and other users of the book will be most welcome Many persons have provided valuable ideas and information They are recognized at appropriate points in the book The advice and assistance of Michael Forster, Cate Rickard-Barr, and Lisa Jelly of ButterworthHeinemann was most helpful Special thanks are due Nancy Reid Baker for vii viii Preface to the Fifth Edition vital computer support, for preparation of new artwork, and for formatting the final camera-ready copy Finally, the author is grateful for the encouragement provided by his wife, Elizabeth Reid Murray Raleigh, North Carolina, 2000 RAYMOND L MURRAY Preface to the Fourth Edition WORLD EVENTS in the early 1990s have accentuated the benefits of nuclear energy The political revolutions in Eastern Europe and the U.S.S.R have produced welcome relief in international tensions between the superpowers, with opportunity for the West to assist in enhancement of safety of reactors The end of the Cold War produced a “peace dividend” for the U.S that can help in solving social and financial problems Weapons and their production capability can be phased out, and there remain scores of contaminated facilities to deal with Military aspects of space can now be de-emphasized, with the prospect of space exploration using nuclear propulsion and nuclear power sources The nuclear industry has taken bold positive steps to develop new and better nuclear power reactors, while the U.S government and states continue to attack the problem of disposal of radioactive wastes The public appears to better recognize the need for nuclear power, but remains reluctant to accept facilities to implement it The beneficial uses of nuclear energy continue to grow, including the application of radioisotopes and radiation to medical diagnosis, treatment, and research Regulatory policies in the U.S that have hampered investment in nuclear power plants have largely been resolved by congressional action At the same time, the laws encourage competition by alternative energy sources It is the author’s belief that nuclear power will be necessary, as world population continues to grow, as expectations for better lives for people of the world are sought, but as the limits of energy efficiency are reached and fossil fuel resources become scarce Leadership in the technology of a closed fuel cycle −enrichment, new reactor construction, breeding, and reprocessing−has been assumed by countries such as France and Japan In the U.S., expertise necessary to maintain and expand the nuclear option in the next century needs to be preserved and extended, as professionals leave or retire from the field The author hopes that this book will continue to serve as a useful vehicle to orient, train, and educate the next generation of professionals and leaders The book is expected to be helpful as well for scientists and engineers in non-nuclear but related fields As in past editions, the level of mathematics demanded by the book is not excessive A new feature − Computer Exercises − has been added, however, intended to enhance the appreciation of effects, trends, and ix x Preface to the Fourth Edition magnitudes They use a set of computer programs available from the author on a non-proprietary, non-profit basis These are written in the BASIC language or utilize a popular spreadsheet Each type of program demands a minimum of expertise in computer programming, but permits calculations that go well beyond those possible or practical by use of a hand-held calculator Some of the programs have convenient menus; others yield directly a set of numbers; still others give graphical displays It would have been good to be able to provide greater opportunity for the student to creative programming and open-ended problem solving, but that was sacrificed because there is so much to learn in a field as varied and complex as nuclear technology The author welcomes communication with teachers and students about difficulties, errors, and suggestions for improvement of the computer programs, the exercises, and the text itself Those kind individuals who provided helpful comments are recognized in the pertinent sections Special thanks are due the author’s wife, Elizabeth Reid Murray, for continued encouragement and advice Raleigh, North Carolina, 1993 RAYMOND L MURRAY Preface to the Third Edition THE ROLE of nuclear processes in world affairs has increased significantly in the 1980s After a brief period of uncertainty, oil has been in adequate supply, but expensive for use in generating electricity For countries without coal resources, nuclear power is a necessity, and new plants are being built The U.S nuclear industry has been plagued with a combination of high construction costs and delays The latter are attributed to actions of intervenors, to inadequate management, and to regulatory changes No new orders for nuclear reactors have been placed, and work has been suspended on a number of plants It appears that less than 20% of the country’s electricity will be provided by nuclear power by the year 2000 Concerns about reactor safety persist in spite of major improvements and an excellent record since TMI-2 The Chernobyl accident accentuated public fears Concerns about waste disposal remain, even though much technical and legislative progress has been made The threat of nuclear warfare casts a shadow over commercial nuclear power despite great differences between the two applications Although the ban on reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel in the United States has been lifted, economic factors and uncertainty have prevented industry from taking advantage of recycling Spent fuel will continue to accumulate at nuclear stations until federal storage facilities and repositories are decided upon Through compacts, states will continue to seek to establish new low-level radioactive waste disposal sites Progress on breeder reactor development in the United States was dealt a blow by the cancellation of the Clinch River Breeder Reactor Project, while the use of fusion for practical power is still well into the future Applications of radioisotopes and nuclear radiation for beneficial purposes continue to increase, and new uses of nuclear devices in space are being investigated Although nuclear power faces many problems, there is optimism that the next few decades will see a growing demand for reactors, to assure industrial growth with ample environmental protection In the long term−into the 21st century and beyond−nuclear will be the only available concentrated energy source The challenge of being prepared for that future can be met through meticulous attention to safety, through continued research and development, and with the support of a public that is adequately informed about the technology, including a fair assessment of benefits and risks xi xii Preface to the Third Edition This book seeks to provide useful information for the student of nuclear engineering, for the scientist or engineer in a non-nuclear field, and for the technically oriented layman, each of whom is called upon to help explain nuclear energy to the public In this new edition, Part I Basic Concepts is only slightly changed; Part II Nuclear Systems involves updating of all chapters; Part III Nuclear Energy and Man was extensively revised to reflect the march of events The “Problems” to be solved by the reader are now called “Exercises.” Many persons provided valuable ideas and information They are recognized at appropriate points in the book Special thanks are due my colleague Ephraim Stam, for his thorough and critical technical review, and to my wife Elizabeth Reid Murray, for advice, for excellent editorial suggestions, and for inspiration Raleigh, North Carolina, 1987 RAYMOND L MURRAY 476 Index Doubling time 164 Drift velocity of ions 115 Driver in fusion 181 D-T reaction 174, 175 Dysprosium-165 for treatment 247 Earth’s radiation energy balance (diagram) 447 Earth Summit 444 ECCS (emergency core cooling system) 275-277, 282 Ecole Polytechnique 407 Economics, definition 383 Economics of nuclear energy 383-386 EdF (Electricité de France) 406, 409 Edison Electric Institute (EEI) 374 EEI (Edison Electric Institute) 374 Effect of distance on radiation intensity 315-318 Effective dose 326 Effective generation time 266 Effective half-life 212, 226, 321 Effective mass of gamma ray 40 Effective multiplication factor 133, 264-266 Efficiency 153, 154 Einstein’s equation 89-90 Einstein’s mass-energy relation 10, 22 Einstein’s theory 61, 92 Einstein 8, 197, 199 Eisenhower, President Dwight 369 Elastic collisions 47, 49-50 Electric and magnetic forces 85-86 Electric charge 17 Electric energy (table) 385 Electric field 85 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) 373-374 Electric propulsion in space 308 Electric vehicle 450 Electrical energy Electrical power cost 383-386 Electricité de France (EdF) 406, 409 Electrochemical conversion 167 Electrolysis 110 Electromagnet 88-90 Electromagnetic energy Electromagnetic fields (EMF) 219 Electromagnetic process 99-100 Electromagnetic pulses (EMP) 424-425 Electromagnetic separation of uranium isotopes 99-100, 200 Electron as beta particle 27 as projectile 57-58 charge orbits 17 symbol 20 Electron volt (unit) Electron-hole pair 119, 120 Electrostatic force in binding energy 21-22 in fission process 67, 69 in fusion process 77-78, 185 in particle collisions 59 Electrostatic generator 86 Electroweak force 93 Elements 14 Emergency core cooling 274-277 Emergency core cooling system (ECCS) 275-277, 282 Emergency plan 280 EMF (electromagnetic fields) 219 EMP (electromagnetic pulses) 424-425 Energy 3-10 average 15 economics 383-401 effect of adding (Figure) 7, electromagnetic flow (diagram) 384 from fission 73 from fission (table) 71 from fusion 174, 175 levels in hydrogen atom (diagram) 18 nuclear vs chemical of combustion of photon 16 radiant 7-8 research 452-454 transformation yield from fusion 77 yield of nuclear weapon 424 world needs 9-10 Energy Information Administration of DOE 405 Energy Policy Act of 1992 376-378 Energy Policy Act of 1992 396-398 Enriched uranium management 433 Enrichment 102, 104, 105 Enterprise, aircraft carrier 299 ENTOMB 356 Envirocare 354 Environmental effect of heated water 155156 Environmental movement 204 Environmental protection 449 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 347, 365-366 Index Environmental Radiological Assessment 323-325 Environmental restoration 355-356 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) 347, 365-366 EPA activities 365-366 EPA limits on radon 322 EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) 373-374 EPRI mission 373-374 Equivalence of matter and energy 8, Error 121 Escape velocity 307 Evaporation of wastes 350 Evaporation of neutrons from nucleus 94 Event trees 277-278 Evolutionary reactor design 399 Excitation 57-58 Excitation energy 69 Excited state 68 Exclusion area 276 Experimental Breeder Reactor 165, 203 Expert system 393 Explosive flaw detection by neutron radiography 238 Exponential 45, 63 Exponential decay 30 Exponential growth 265-266 Faraday’s law of induction 89 Fast breeder reactor 164, 165-169 Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) 166 Fast neutrons 47, 68-69 Fast neutrons, detection of 117-118 Fast reactor 132, 135, 163 Fat Man nuclear weapon (diagram) 422 Fault trees 277-280 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 280 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) 377 Feed of isotope separator 102, 103 Feedback 268 FEL (free electron laser) 94 FERC (Federal Energy Regulatory Commission) 377 Fermi I reactor 165 Fermi, Enrico neutron research 198 reactor experiment 200, 419 quotation 224 Fermilab 91 Fertile 72, 74 477 Fertile materials 162, 163 FFTF (Fast Flux Test Facility) 166 Fick’s law of diffusion 52 Film badges 320 Film boiling 151 Filters 349-350 Final Safety Analysis Report (FSAR) 274 Finland 409 Fire hazard with sodium 166 Fissile 68, 72, 73 Fission process 67-73 energy release role of binding energy 22-23 Fission chamber 117 Fission explosive 419-420 Fission fragments 67, 68, 70, 71, 117 Fission products 70 (graph) decay gammas 71 discovery of 198-199 heat 276 volume 338-339 weight 338-339 hazard 264 Fission reaction equation 70 Fissionable 68 Flibe 181, 182 Flow half-life 226 Flow rate analysis 225-226 Fluorine-18 228-229 Flux, neutron 42, 134 Food irradiation 248-252 Food spoilage 248 Forces Forecasts of nuclear power 386-389 Fossil fuel exhaustion 452 Fossil fuel plants 154 Fossil fuels 448 Fractional distillation 110 Framatome 407 France 406-409 Free electron laser (FEL) 94 Frequency light of incidents 280 photons 16 Frisch 198 FSAR (Final Safety Analysis Report) 274 Fuel 136 assembly 338 consumption 139, 141 cost 140 element 138, 271 fabrication controls 271 isotopic composition 338 478 Index rod 138 rod consolidation 338, 343 storage pool 337-338 zones 273-274 Fundamental physical constants (table) 464 Fusion 76-80, 174-190 energy release 76 future use 450, 451 inertial confinement 181-185 magnetic confinement 177-181 pellets 181-182 power density 176 reaction rates (graph) 176 reactions 76-77, 174-175, 185 reactors 38, 81, 174-190 Future, views of 439 Fuzzy logic 393 Galileo spacecraft 303-304 Gamma rays (definition) cobalt-60 30 cross sections (graph) 62 flux 314-315 radiography 236-237 reaction product 39 scattering on electron 60-63 shielding 318-319 spectroscopy 232, 233 Gap 148 Gas centrifuge 105-108 Gas counters 115-116 Gas law 15, 80 Gas turbine measurements by neutron radiography 238 Gaseous core reactor 301 Gaseous diffusion 100-105 Gases 15 Gate of fault tree diagram 278 Gaussian distribution 121, 122 (graph) Geiger-Müller (GM) counter 116 General Atomics 202 General Electric 203 General Electric Advanced Boiling Water Reactor 399-400 Generator, electrical 152, 154, 155 Genes 211 Genetic effects of radiation 212 Geologic media 345 Geological applications of NAA 235-236 Germanium 119, 120 Germany 409 Global climate change 446-448 Global warming 447 Globalization 405 Glow curve of phosphor (graph) 119 GM (Geiger-Müller) counter 116 Godiva 128-130 GPHS (General Purpose Heat Source) 303 Granite 345 Gravity 3, Gray (unit) 213 Greater-than-Class-C wastes 352 Greek characters Greenhouse effect 446-448 Greenhouse gases 446 Groves, General Leslie 199 Gun weapon technique 420-421 Hadron calorimeter 123 Hahn 198 Half-life (definition) 28 carbon-14 231 biological 321 effective 321 measurement of 32-33 values 71, 72 Half-thickness (definition) 45 Half-thickness for gamma rays 63 Hanford 200 Hastelloy 346 Head-on collision 47 Health physics 313 Health Physics Society (HPS) 376 Heat exchanger (diagram) 154 flow 148 generation 148 of combustion 11 of vaporization transfer coefficient 149 transmission, methods of 147 Heavy charged particles 58-60 Heavy water diffusion length 51 HEDS (Human Exploration and Development of Space enterprise) 306 Helium 14 Helium detector 118 Helium-3 in fusion 77, 185-186 Helix 86, 178 Heterogeneous 136, 167 HEU (highly-enriched uranium) 105 Higgs boson 93 High pressure injection system 278 High temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) 137, 202 High-level waste (HLW) 335 Index High-level waste disposal 343-348 High-pressure injection system 275 High-voltage machines 86 Highly enriched uranium (HEU) 105, 429 Hiroshima 200 History of nuclear energy 197-206 HLW (high-level waste) 335 HLW disposal concepts 343-344 HLW nuclides 345 Hohlraum 182 Homogeneous 136 Homogeneous aqueous reactor 202 Hormesis, 219 HPS (Health Physics Society) 376 HTGR (high temperature gas-cooled reactor) 137, 202 Human Genome Project 226 Hungary 411 Hybrid reactor 185 Hybridization 226 Hydroelectric 4, Hydrogen atom, Bohr theory 15-18 atom (diagram) 16 atomic weight 14 bomb 76, 175, 421-426 heavy 6-7 isotopes 19, 20 number density 45 propellant for rocket 301 radius of electron motion 45 scattering by 45 IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) and Chernobyl 286, 289 functions 369-370 inspections 431-432 safeguards role 368, 427, 434 ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile) 426 Ice Icebreakers 300 ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection) 215, 218, 313 IDCOR (Industry Degraded Core Rulemaking) 283-284 IEEE (Institute of Electric and Electronics Engineers) 375, 376 IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) 167-168 Ignition temperature 81, 174, 175-176 Implantation of radionuclides 246-247 Implosion weapon technique 420-422 479 Inadvertent intruder 353 Incineration 349 India 414 Indium 117 Individual Plant Examination (IPE) 285 Indonesia 413-414 Induction accelerator (betatron) 89 Industry Degraded Core Rulemaking (IDCOR) 283-284 Inelastic scattering 44 Inelastic scattering research 257 Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) 175 Lawson criterion 177 machines 181-185 progress (graph) 187 Infinite multiplication factor 133 Ingestion dose conversion factors (table) 325 INPO (Institute of Nuclear Power Operations) 370-373, 376 INSC (International Nuclear Safety Center) 289 Insect control 254-255 Institute of Electric and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 375, 376 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) 370-373, 376 Institutional and industrial wastes (table) 351 Instrumentation system 270 Intact decommissioning 357 Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) 167-168 Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) 426 Intermediate heat exchanger 166 Internal radiation exposure 321-322 International Atomic Energy Agency (see IAEA) International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 215, 218 International nuclear power 405-415 International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC) 289, 405 International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) 186, 187 Internet vii, 467 Interstate compacts 352, 353 (map) Inverse square spreading 315-318 Iodine radioisotopes 227 Iodine-125 for treatment 246 Iodine-131 212, 342 Ion engine for space propulsion 308 Ion propulsion in space 301 Ion-exchange 350 480 Index Ionization Bohr theory 17 by electrons 57-59 in biological tissue 211-213 Ionization chamber 115 Ions IPE (Individual Plant Examination) 285 Iraq 100 Iraq weapons program 431 Iridium-192 236 Iridium-192 for treatment 246 Irradiation facility (diagram) 251 Isotopes (definition) 19 information from 224-241 production and consumption 164-165 radioactive 224, 225 separation methods 99 separators 99-110 stable 224, 225 Italy 410 ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) 186, 187 Ivy/Mike shot 422, 423, 424 Japan 412-413 JET (Joint European Torus) 181, 182, 187188 Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE) 364 Joint European Torus (JET) 181, 182, 187188 Joliot 198 Jupiter 303, 304 K-capture 30 Kazakhstan 411 Kelvin Kinetic energy (definition) atoms electron in electric field 85 fission fragments 67 hydroelectric relativistic 8-9 Kinetic theory of gases 15 Kink in plasma 180 Krypton-85 315, 342 Kyoto Protocol 447-448 Lady Godiva 128-130 Large Hadron Collider 94 Laser (definition) 18 applications 19 beams 18-19 beams in fusion 175 fusion 182-184 isotope separation 107-109 materials 19 Laser-fusion reactor (diagram) 184 Latent heat Lawrence, Ernest O 88, 198, 200 Laws, regulations, and organizations 364379 Lawson criterion 176-177, 187 Lead (Pb) 27 Lead-206 32 Leakage of neutrons from reactor 128, 163, 164 LET (linear energy transfer) 60, 211 LEU (low-enrichment uranium) 105 License renewal 395-396 Light, Bohr theory 17 Light, speed of Light, visible Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 427 Limits of exposure 215-219 Linac 87 Linear accelerator 87, 88 Linear attenuation coefficient 317 Linear energy transfer (LET) 60 Linear no threshold (LNT) 216-217 Linear-quadratic model 215-217 Liquid level measurement 238 Liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) 137, 165-169 Liquid sodium 166 Lithium 174, 175 Lithium deuteride 424 Lithium iodide 118 Lithuania 411 Little Boy nuclear weapon (diagram) 421 LLRWPA (Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act) 352 LLW (low-level waste) 336 LLW disposal concepts 353-354 LLW sources 351 LMFBR (liquid metal fast breeder reactor) 137, 165-169 LOCA (loss of coolant accident) 275-277 Logarithmic energy change 50 Logging 238 Loop fast breeder reactor 167, 168 Los Alamos 128, 200 Loss of coolant accident (LOCA) 275-277 Love Canal 205 Low-enrichment uranium (LEU) 105, 429 Index Low-level radioactive waste disposal facility 217 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (LLRWPA) 352 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985 352 Low-level waste (LLW) 336 disposal sites 351-352 management 348-355 streams (table) 351 Low-pressure injection system 275 Luckey 219 Lunar landing 300 Macroscopic cross section 42, 44 MAD (mutual assured destruction) 426 Magnetic confinement 80 Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) 175 Lawson criterion 176-177 machines 177-181 progress (graph) 189 Magnetic field 85, 86, 99, 100, 178-180 Magnetic induction 86, 87 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 229 Main Ring of Tevatron 91 Maintenance Rule 368 Manhattan Project 199, 200 Mars mission 305-306 Mars Society 306 Mass 3, 8, Mass attenuation coefficients (table) 318 Mass flow rate of coolant 149 Mass number 19-20 Mass of electron Mass ratio, proton to electron 17 Mass spectrograph 99-100 Mass, rest Mass-energy 8, 39, 60 Masses of atoms and nuclei 20-21 Material balances 102-103 M aterial unaccounted for (MUF) 430 Materials Testing Reactor 202 Materials, radiation effect on 57 Matter, state of Maxey Flats disposal site 351 Maximum permissible concentration (MPC) 321-322 Maxwell’s gas theory 15 Maxwell’s speed distribution (formula) 24 Maxwellian distribution 15, 16 (graph), 51 McMillan, E M 90 MDS Nordion 249, 250 Mean free path 45, 115 481 Mean free path for gamma rays 63 Mean free path, transport 49, 52 Mean life 31, 266 Meat irradiation 252 Medical diagnosis by X-rays 236 Medical imaging 228-229 Medical imaging by immunoassay 230 Medical supply sterilization 252-253 Medical treatment 246-248 Megatons to Megawatts 102 Megawatt-days per metric ton 142 Meitner 198 Melting point of sodium 166 Merchant ship 300 Mercury detection in the environment 235 Methane in counter 118 Metric system of units Metric ton (tonne) 142 MeV (unit) Mexico 414 Microscopic cross section 41 Microshells for ICF 183 Microwaves 179-180 Mill tailings 322, 333, 336 Millirem (unit) 213, 214 Mirror machine 178 Mixed oxide (MOX) 167, 169, 341, 434 Mixed wastes 336 Mobility 115 Moderator (definition) 50 effect on neutron energy distribution 131-132 materials 136 properties 50, 51 purpose 71 reactor 138-139 Moderator temperature effect 268 Molecular biology research 258-259 Molecular structure studies 259-260 Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 168-169 Molybdenum-99 227 Momentum 40 Monitored Retrieval Storage (MRS) 347 MONJU reactor 166, 413 Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) 247- 248 Most probable speed 43 MOX (mixed oxide) 167, 169, 341 MPC (maximum permissible concentration) 321-322 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) 229 MRS (Monitored Retrieval Storage) 347 MSRE (Molten Salt Reactor Experiment) 168-169 482 Index MUF (Material unaccounted for) 430 Multibarrier 344-347 Multichannel analyzer 122 Multiplication of neutrons 128 Multiplication factor 128-130 reactor safety 264-266 fuel consumption 273 Muons 186 Murphy’s law 205 Mutsu, merchant ship 300 Mutual assured destruction (MAD) 426 NAA (neutron activation analysis) 231-236 Nagasaki 200 NaK coolant 301 NARUC (National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners) 376 NAS (National Academy of Sciences) 434 National Academy for Nuclear Training 371 National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 377, 434 National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC) 376 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) 215, 218 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) 365 National Ignition Facility (NIF) 183-184, 189 National laboratories 368 National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA) 376 National Synchrotron Light Source 94 Natural languages 393 Natural radiation 210, 214 Natural radioactivity 32 Natural reactor 142 Natural uranium 15, 101, 141 Nautilus, nuclear submarine 298-299 Naval propulsion 298-300 NCRP (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements) 215, 218, 313 Negative feedback in reactor 268 NEI (Nuclear Energy Institute) 374-376 NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act of 1969) 365 NEPA (Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft) 300 Neptune 303 Neptunium-239 72, 164, 341 NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) 301, 306 Net current density 52 Netherlands 410 Neural networks 393 Neutrino (definition) 27 fission source 71 detectors 123-124 Neutron (definition) 19, 20 absorption 63 activation 357 capture 39 chain reactions 128-143 cross section measurements 257 cross sections 45-47 cycle (diagram) 133 cycle time 266, 267 decay 28-29 detectors 116-118 diffraction 257-258 energy from fission 71 energy groups 165 energy loss 50 flux 44, 52, 134, 265, 270 from fission 69 from fusion 174-175 gas 43 interaction with matter 63 interferometry 258 migration 47-52 number 20 number density 44 per absorption in U-235 72 per fission 162 population growth 264-268 radiation damage 63 radiography 237-238 reactions 38, 63-64 scattering in carbon 50 shielding 317-318 source 130, 421 transmutation doping (NPD) 256 wave length 257 symbol for 20 Neutron activation analysis (NAA) 231-236 Neutron-free fusion reactions 185 Nevada Test Site 346, 347 Newton’s law NIF (National Ignition Facility) 183-184, 189 Nitrogen-13 37 NNOG (Nuclear Non-Operating Owners Group) 376 NNWS (Nonnuclear weapons states) 427428 Non-leakage factor 130-134 Index Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) 427 Nonnuclear weapons states (NNWS) 427428 Nonproliferation and safeguards 429-431 North Carolina State College 376 North Korea 413 Nova fusion machine 183-184 N-P junction 120-121 NPD (Neutron transmutation doping) 256 NPT (Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons) 427 NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission) 347, 365, 366-368 NRC policies and practices 367 NRECA (National Rural Electric Cooperative Association) 376 Nuclear controversy 204-206 Nuclear emulsion 123 Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) 374-376 Nuclear energy, benefits of 195 Nuclear explosions 419-435 Nuclear fission Nuclear force 22 Nuclear fuel cycle 333-335 Nuclear fuel cycles (diagram) 334 Nuclear Fuel Services (NFS) 340-341 Nuclear gauges 238-240 Nuclear heat energy 147-159 Nuclear journals 375 Nuclear medicine 228-230 Nuclear Non-Operating Owners Group (NNOG) 376 Nuclear physics 197-198 Nuclear power future 439-455 opinion of 204-206 plant dose limits 217 plant radioactive releases 323 reactors 135-139 Nuclear power vs nuclear weapons 419-420 Nuclear processes 37-52 Nuclear propulsion 298-308 Nuclear reactions 37-40 Nuclear reactor 43, 44 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 217, 218, 274, 347, 365, 366-368 Nuclear rocket 301, 306-307 Nuclear share of electricity generation (chart) 408 Nuclear structure 19-20 Nuclear Waste Fund 347 Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) 337, 346 483 Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) 346 Nuclear weapons descriptions 420-424 development 199 energy yield 424 radiation effect 424 Nuclear weapons states (NWS) 427-428 Nuclear winter 425-426 Nucleate boiling 151 Nuclei, number of 30 Nucleon 19, 20, 22 Nucleus of atom 15 Nucleus of biological cell 210 Number density 14-15 Number density in fusion 176 Number density of neutrons 43 Number of neutrons per absorption 72 Number of neutrons per fission 130 Number prefixes (table) NWPA (Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982) 337, 346 NWS (Nuclear weapons states) 427-428 O&M (operation and maintenance) 385 Oak Ridge 99, 100, 200 Occupational exposure dose limits 217, 218 OCRWM (Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management) 368 Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM) 368 Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards 368 Oil crisis of 1973 439-440, 452 Oklo phenomenon 142 OMEGA inertial confinement fusion machine 187 Once-through fuel cycle 333-334 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) 170 Operating limits of reactors 271-272 Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs 385 Oppenheimer, J Robert 200 Opposition to nuclear power 390 Orbits, electron 17 Organ and tissue weighting factors (table) 327 Organic coolant 202 Oxygen 14 Paducah, KY 102 484 Index Pair annihilation 62, 64 Pair production 61-63 Pakistan 414 Palladium-103 for treatment 246 Parent-daughter relation fuel production and consumption 165 radioactive chain 31-32, 35 radionuclide generator 227 Particle accelerators 85-95 Particle attenuation 44-45 Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator (PBFA) 184 Particles Parts per million (ppm) 141 Passive reactor design 399, 400 Pathogen reduction by irradiation 253 PBFA (Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator) 184 Pellets of nuclear fuel 137-138 Perfect gas law 15 Period of reactor 265, 266 Periodic table 14 Pesticide investigations by NAA 235 PET (Positron Emission Tomography) 228229 PET scan (photo) 229 Petroleum processing using NAA 234 PGNAA (Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis) 233 Philippines 413-414 Philosophy of safety 289-291 Phosphor in detector 118, 119 Phosphorus-32 225, 227 Photoelectric effect 61, 62 Photomultiplier 118, 119 Photon 7, 16-18, 60 Physics research 256-258 Physiological effects of radiation 211-212 Pile 200 Pinch effect 178 Planck’s constant 16 Plasma 3, 78-79 Plutonium disposal options 434 for weapons 420 from reprocessing 343 management 433-434 production 200 Plutonium-238 302 Plutonium-239 as fissile isotope 68 effect on reactor operation 141 in breeder reactor 162-165 production equations 72 Plutonium-240 141, 164, 343 Plutonium-241 141,163, 164 Plutonium-242 141, 164 Poisson distribution 121, 125 Population growth (graph) 444 Portsmouth, OH 102 Portugal 410 Positive void coefficient 287 Positron 29, 37, 62 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 228229 Positron-electron pair 30 Pot fast breeder reactor 167, 168 Potassium-40 29, 34 Potassium-Argon dating 231 Potential energy 3, 4, 22 Power 5-6 Power coefficient 269 Power loss rate in fusion 176-177 Power of reactor 134 Power, thermal 149 PRA (probabilistic risk assessment) 277280, 367 Predictions of energy and population 443, 444 Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) 274 Preservation of artistic objects 256 Pressure 15 Pressure in plasma 79 Pressure vessel 138, 139 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) 136-139, 202, 399-400 Pressurizer 153, 281 Prevention of nuclear war 426-429 Price-Anderson Act 281 Privatization 405 Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) 277280, 367 Probability 121 Product of isotope separator 102, 103 Projectiles 41 Projections (graphs) 400, 401 Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) 233 Prompt gamma rays 67, 71 Prompt neutrons 69, 266 Proportional counter 115 Protactinium-233 27, 72 Protection against weapons diversion 430 Protection from radiation exposure 312 Protection of the environment 449 Protective measures 272, 312-314 Proton 19 Index Proton recoil counter 117-118 Prudence review 388-389 PSAR (Preliminary Safety Analysis Report) 274 Public concerns about food irradiation 249250 Public Utilities Commissions (PUCs) 388 Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA) 396 PUHCA (Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935) 396 Pulse 115, 122, 123 Pulse height analysis 122-123 Purex process 341 Purposes of reactors 135 PWR (pressurized water reactor) 136-139, 202, 399-400 PWR system flow diagram 154 Quality assurance (QA) 274 Quality control (QC) 274 Quality factor 213 (table) Quantum numbers 17 Quark 92, 93 Quench 116 Racks, fuel storage 337 Rad (unit) 213 Radiant energy 7-8 Radiation Radiation and materials 57-64 Radiation chemistry 255-256 Radiation damage 63, 64, 211 Radiation detectors 114-124 Radiation dosage, sources of 219-220 Radiation dose in nuclear power plants (table) 218 Radiation dose units 212-215 Radiation doses for foods (table) 250 Radiation effect of nuclear weapon 424 Radiation effects research 216 Radiation exposure trend (diagram) 372 Radiation exposure, average U.S 214 Radiation fluxes (table) 315 Radiation from cell phones 219 Radiation gauges 238-240 Radiation losses in plasma 80 Radiation preservation of food 248-252 Radiation protection 312-328 Radiation shielding 316-320 Radiation sickness 212 Radiation therapy 246-248 485 Radiation treatment of sewage sludge 253 Radiation treatment of wood 255 Radiation, heat 147 Radiative capture 71 Radii of nuclei 20 Radio-frequency 89 Radioactive capsule (“seed”) 246 Radioactive chains 31-32 Radioactive decay 27 Radioactive isotopes 224, 225 Radioactive isotopes (table) 29 Radioactive probe 227 Radioactive releases from nuclear power plant 323 Radioactive waste disposal 333-358 Radioactive waste inventories (table) 336 Radioactive wastes in fusion 185 Radioactive wastes, definition 333 Radioactivity 27-34 Radioactivity in sodium coolant 166 Radiofrequency 179-180 Radiography 236-238 Radioimmunoassay 229-230 Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) 302-305 Radioisotopes 225 Radiological protection analysis 313 Radiological weapons 424 Radionuclide generator 227 Radionuclides in waste 345 Radionuclides used in therapy (table) 247 Radiopharmaceuticals 227-228, 228 (table) Radium hazard 216 Radium-226 and definition of curie 31 as source of radon 322 in uranium series 32, 333 Radius of gyration 86 Radius of hydrogen atom 20 Radius of nucleus (formula) 20 Radon 219 Radon problem 322-323 Radon-222 322, 333 Radura 252 Random motion 43 Random numbers 43 Range 60 Range of beta particles (formula) 65 RBMK reactor 286, 287 Reaction rate (definition) 42 absorption 44 detector 116 fusion (graph) 176 production of Pu-239 72 486 Index production of U-233 72-73 theory 40-44 Reactivity 129-130, 267, 269 Reactivity of control rods 269-271 Reactor fuel inspection by neutron radiography 238 Reactor fuel zones 273-274 life extension 394-395 materials (table) 137 natural 142 operation 139-142 orders 389 oversight process 367 power 73, 134 R&D 202-204 safety 264-291 types 135-137 first 200 Reactor Safety Study 277, 283-284 Reactors under construction and planned (table) 415 Recycle 333-334 Recycling of plutonium 167 Red Book 171, 173 Reflector 139 Regulations 313-314 Regulatory Guides 323, 367 Relation of DAC and ALI 327 Relativity Compton effect 60 kinetic energy mass-energy relation mass increase speed in accelerator 89-90 Relief valve 281 Rem (unit) 213, 214 Removal cross section 317 Repository 344-347 Reprocessing history 167, 340 operations 341-342 merits of 342-343 future use 450 Reproduction factor (table) 162 Reproduction factor 132 Reproduction, biological 210-211 Research and development projects 452-455 Resonance absorption 132-134 Resonance capture 163 Resonance cross section 117 Resonance escape probability 132 Rest energy Rest mass 8, 89 Restructuring 396-398 RHU (Radioactive Heating Units) 304 Ribosome 258-259 Richland 352 Rickover, H G 298 Risk 280 Risk-Informed Performance-Based regulation 367-368 Robotics 393 Robots for space missions 307 Rocket equation 306-307 Rocket, nuclear 301 Rod-drop technique 270 Roentgen (scientist) 197 Romania 411 Room temperature 5, 43, 51 Roosevelt, President Franklin D 199 Rover project 301 RSH (Radiation, Science, and Health) 216, 220 RTG (Radioisotope thermoelectric generator) 302-305 RTG for SNAP-27 (table) 303 Runaway electrons 180 Russia 411 Rutherford’s experiment 37 Rutherford 15, 197, 198 Sachs 199 Safety features of reactors 264 Safety goals of NRC 290 Safety philosophy 289-291 SAFSTOR 356 Salmonella 249 Salt 345 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) 428 Sarcophagus of Chernobyl-4 288 Saturn 303, 304 Sausage in plasma 180 Savannah, merchant ship 300 Scattering cross section 45 Scattering cross section for hydrogen (graph) 49 Scattering length 258 Scattering of electrons 59 Scintillation counter 118-119 Scintillation detection system (diagram) 118 Screwworm fly 254-255 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative) 428 Seaborg, Glenn 199 Second law of thermodynamics 153 Secular equilibrium 32 Index Seed germination study by neutron radiography 238 SEI (Space Exploration Initiative) 305-306 Semiconductor 119, 120, 256 Semilog plot 33 Separation factor in gaseous diffusion 102 Separation factors in centrifuge 107 Separation of deuterium 109-110 Separation of U-235 99-109, 334 Separative work units 104 Sheffield waste disposal site 351 Shell model of atoms 17 Shipping casks 339-340 Shippingport 202 Shock wave 182 Shroud of Turin 230 SI units Sievert (unit) 213, 214 Silex process 109 Silicon 119, 120 Simulation 393 Single-channel analyzer 122 SIT (sterile insect technique) 254-255 Sizes of atoms and nuclei 20-21 Slovakia 412 Slovenia 412 SNAP (Systems for Auxiliary Nuclear Power) 301 SNS (Spallation Neutron Source) 95 Sodium as coolant 166-167 Sodium iodide 118, 228 Sodium-22 29, 30 Sodium-24 34, 225 Sodium-graphite reactor 202 Soil moisture measurement 238-240 Sojourner 304 Solar energy 451 Solar radiation 219 Solid state detector 119-120 Solid-state detector (diagram) 121 Soluble poison 139 Solvent extraction (diagram) 341 Somatic effects of radiation 212 Source terms 284 Sources of radioisotopes 225 South Africa 414 South Korea 413 Space isotopic power 302-305 Space reactors 300-302 Space shuttle 205 Spain 410 Spallation 93-95, 433 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) 95 Sparkplug of hydrogen bomb 423 487 Specific heat 5, 15, 149 Specific inventory 164 SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computer Tomography) 228 Speed 3, of falling water of gas particles 15 of light 7-9 of particles 8, 40 of particle in electric field 85 of particles in betatron 90 molecular most probable 15 relativistic Spent fuel composition 338, 339 standard 434 storage 171, 336-339 volume 338 vs weapons material 420 Spoilage of food 248 Spontaneous fission 69 Stable isotopes 224, 225 Stage of isotope separator 101 Standard deviation 121 Standard Model 92 Star Wars 428, 429 START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) 428-429, 433 Statistics of counting 120-121 Steam generation 152-153 Steam generator 152-154 Stellarator 178 Sterile insect technique (SIT) 254-255 Sterilization of medical supplies 252-253 Stewardship 356 Stonehenge dating 230 Stopping power 60 Storage pool 337-338 Storage racks 337 Stranded costs 397 Strassman 198 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 428 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) 428-429, 433 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 428 Strategic Plan for Building New Nuclear Power Plants 398 Strategic weapons 426 Stream of particles 41 Stripping reaction 94 Strontium-90 33, 238, 342 Subcritical 128, 130 488 Index Subcritical multiplication factor 265 Submarine, nuclear 298-299 Supercollider 93 Supercompactors 349 Superconducting magnets 91 Supercritical 128, 130 Superphenix 166, 409 Surface to volume ratio 130 Survey meters 319 Survival of the nuclear industry 392 Survival studies for cell irradiation 215, 216 Sustainable development 443-446 Sweden 409 Switzerland 409-410 SWU 104 Symbols for isotopes 20 Synchrotron 90-92 Synchrotron radiation 94, 96 Synchrotron X-rays 259-260 Systeme Internationale Szilard 199 Tactical weapons 426 Tails of isotope separation 103 Taiwan 413 Tamper 423 Tanks, underground 355 Targets of nuclear projectile 41-42 Technetium-99m 227-228 Technical Specifications 274 Technology transfer 445 Temperature Temperature coefficient 269 conversions 10 difference in fuel 148 distribution in fuel (graph) 149 distributions in reactor 150-151 effect on neutron multiplication 268-269 gas 15 plasma 79 Temperature-dose relation 215 Terraforming of Mars 308 Terrorists 429-430 Tevatron 91 Textile manufacturing using NAA 233-234 TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) 181 Thermal reactor 132 Thermal efficiency 153, 158 Thermal energy 5-7, 67 Thermal neutron absorption cross sections (table) 46 Thermal neutron flux 265 Thermal neutrons 51 Thermal neutrons, detection of 117 Thermal pollution 156 Thermal reactor 135, 163, 164 Thermal utilization 132 Thermodynamics 153 Thermodynamics, laws of Thermoelectric conversion 301 Thermoluminescence 231 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) 119 Thermonuclear explosions 175, 420 Thermonuclear reactions 78-80, 181 Thermonuclear weapon (diagram) 423 Thickness gauges 238 Thorium-232 32, 72, 162 Three Mile Island Unit (TMI) 205 Three Mile Island accident aftermath 283-284 causes 281-283 effect on nuclear power industry 390-391 recovery 283 Threshold 217 Thyroid gland 212, 321 Time per revolution in accelerator 88 TLD (thermoluminescent dosimeter) 119 TMI (Three Mile Island Unit 2) 205 Tokamak 179 Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) 181 Tokamak-60 (Japan) 181 Torus 179 Tracers 225-227 Transmutation 37-39 Transmutation doping of semiconductors 256 Transport mean free path 49, 51, 52 Transportation 450 Transportation of wastes 339-340 Transportation regulations 339 Transuranic wastes (TRU) 335 Transuranic wastes 355-356 Trident strategic missiles 299 Tritium in fusion 77, 174 in reactor waste 342 isotope of hydrogen 19, 20 production 29, 432-433 TRU (transuranic wastes) 335 TRUPAC II 355-356 Tsetse fly 255 Tuff 345 Turbine 152, 154, 155 Turkey 414 Two-phase flow 151-152 Index U.S Enrichment Corporation (USEC) 102, 105, 109, 378 Ukraine 411 Ulysses spacecraft 304 Uncollided flux 318 Underground waste tanks 355 Unique radiolytic products (URP) 249-250 United Kingdom 410 University of Chicago 200 Unplanned scrams trend (diagram) 372 Uranium atomic weight 14 composition 72 cross section (graph) 48 decay 27 demand and resources (table) 170 deposits in U.S 171 economics 104-105 energy content hexafluoride 101, 333-334 in explosive 420 isotope half-lives 142 macroscopic cross section 43-44 ore 333 oxide 137 reserves of U.S (table) 171 resources 169-171, 170 (table) separation by laser 107-109 Uranium-233 fissile isotope 68 fuel for breeder 162 reaction equations to produce 72-73 Uranium-234 content in uranium 101 Uranium-235 absorption cross section 43 consumption 164-165 critical mass (table) 421 enrichment 136 fission 67, 68 half-life 29 separation 99-109 weapon material 420 Uranium-236 from radiative capture 71-72, 130 in fission 67, 68 Uranium-238 consumption 164-165 fertile isotope 72, 162 half-life 29, 32 precursor of radon 322 Uranium-lead dating 231 USEC (U.S Enrichment Corporation) 102, 105, 109, 378 Useful radiation effects 246-260 489 Valence shell 18 Van de Graaff accelerator 86, 88, 90 Vapor shield in fusion machine 180 Vaporization Veksler, V I 90 Velocity of light Venn diagrams 280 Viability Assessment document 346 Virtual Nuclear Tourist 405 Virtual reality 393 Vitrification of plutonium 434 Voltage multiplier 86 Volume flow rate of coolant 150 Volume of nucleus 15 Voyager spacecraft 303-304 Wall of fusion chamber 180, 182, 185 WANO (World Association of Nuclear Operators) 373 Ward Valley 354 Waste classification 335-336 Waste heat 157-158 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) 355-356 Waste of isotope separator 102, 103 Waste power 154 Waste radionuclides 345 Waste volume 338-339 Water age to thermal 50 diffusion length 51 effect of energy addition moderator 131-132, 136 molecular number density 15 neutron mean free path 45 pressure-temperature relation (graph) 153 Watson 226 Watt (unit) Wave length of particle 257 Wave mechanics 257 Wavelength 7, 16 Weapons plutonium 169, 419-422 uranium 419-421 thermonuclear 422-426 Weapons-grade plutonium 420 Weight percent (w/o) 103, 104 Weighting factors, organ and tissue (table) 327 West Valley 351 Westinghouse 202, 203 Westinghouse AP600 400 490 Index Wheeling of electric power 396 Wigner, Eugene 198, 199 WIPP (Waste Isolation Pilot Plant) 355-356 Wood treatment by radiation 255 Work (definition) World annual electricity production (table) 442 World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO) 373, 412 World energy consumption trends (graph) 443 World energy problem 440-441 World energy use 441-443 World nuclear power (table) 407 World population data (table) 442 World population growth (graph) 443 World primary energy (table) 442 World War II 199 X-rays fluorescence spectrometry 236 from K-capture 30 hazard 216 in hydrogen bomb 423 medical diagnosis 236 origin 7, 58 radiography 236-237 treatment 246 use in inertial confinement fusion 182 Xenon-135 141-142 Yalow 229 Yellowcake 333 Yield of fission products (graph) 70 Yield of neutrons from spallation 94 Yucca Mountain 346-347 Zircaloy 136 Zirconium 53 ... 1.7 1.8 1.9 Energy Forces and Energy Thermal Energy Radiant Energy The Equivalence of Matter and Energy Energy and the World Summary Exercises General References References for Chapter 10 10 11... Nuclear Energy An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes FIFTH EDITION Raymond L Murray Nuclear Engineering Department, North Carolina State University,... Breeder Reactor Breeding and Uranium Resources Summary Exercises References for Chapter 13 Fusion Reactors Comparison of Fusion Reactions Requirements for Practical Fusion Reactors Magnetic Confinement